<p>The Cuanza River, also known as the Coanza, the Quanza, and the Kwanza, is a river in Angola. It empties into the Atlantic Ocean just south of the national capital Luanda.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The river is navigable for about 150 mi from its mouth, located 60 km south of Luanda. Its tributaries included the Cutato and Lucala.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The river&#39;s navigable lower course was the original route of Portugal invasion into northern Angola.</p><br>
<p>The Capanda Dam in Malanje Province was finished in 2004, providing hydroelectric power to the region and assisting its irrigation. The Cambambe Hydroelectric Power Station also lies on the river, with the Lauca Dam under construction. The Barra do Kwanza, the mouth of the river, is gradually being developed for tourism, including a golf course.</p><br>
<p>The Church of Nossa Senhora da Victoria stands near the banks of the Cuanza River in Massanganu, Province of Kwanza-Norte, Angola.Valdez, F. T. (1861), Six Years of a Traveller&#39;s Life in Western Africa, Vol. II, Hurst and Blackett.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>Rich biodiversity has been found in the Angolan river, according to research reported on the Science and Development Network website. Angola&#39;s first biodiversity tally of the Kwanza River has so far found 50 fish species. Researchers from the National Fishing Research Institute and the South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity say genetic testing may reveal new species. Sport fishing includes tarpon.</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<p>Angola&#39;s currency, the kwanza, is named after the river. The river is also the namesake of the provinces of Cuanza Norte ("Cuanza North") and Cuanza Sul ("Cuanza South").</p><br>
<p>Sitia  is a port town and a municipality in Lasithi, Crete, Greece. The town has 9,912 inhabitants  and the municipality has 18,318 . It lies east of Agios Nikolaos and northeast of Ierapetra. Sitia port is on the Sea of Crete, part of the Aegean Sea and is one of the economic centers of the Lasithi region. European route E75, which ends in Vardø, starts in Sitia. Sitia is served by the Sitia Public Airport. Sitia has not experienced the effects of mass tourism even though there is a long beach along the road leading to Vai and several places of historical interest.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Municipality</h3><br>
<p>The municipality Sitia was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 3 former municipalities which became municipal units:</p><br>
<p>Itanos</p><br>
<p>Lefki, Lasithi</p><br>
<p>Sitia</p><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 627 km&sup2, the municipal unit 277 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<h3>Province</h3><br>
<p>The province of Siteia (Επαρχία Σητείας) was one of the provinces of Lasithi. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipality Siteia and the municipal unit Makry Gialos. It was abolished in 2006.</p><br>
<h3>Environmentally protected areas</h3><br>
<p>The are a number of sites in the municipality of Sitia that are protected as National Parks, Aesthetic Forests, Wildlife Refuges etc. under national and international laws.</p><br>
<p>Notable examples are:</p><br>
<p>Dionysades Islands which carry many rare and endangered plant species and also serve as a refuge of several animal species (mostly birds and small reptiles), including the falcon, Falco eleonorae, which finds sanctuary here.</p><br>
<p>Vai Palm Forest.</p><br>
<p>Richtis Gorge and waterfall.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The settlement of the town dates to pre-Minoan times. Excavations in the Petras neighbourhood have found architectural remains from the end of the Neolithic (3000 BC) and continue through the Bronze Age 3000-1050 BC, including the Minoan palace of Petras. Several other Minoan settlements have been found within the municipality, notably Itanos and Mochlos.</p><br>
<p>According to Diogenes Laertius, Sitia was the home of Myson of Chen, one of the Seven Sages of Greece.</p><br>
<h3>Etymology</h3><br>
<p>The ancient Ητεία, written as Itia or Etea in English, appears to correspond roughly to modern Sitia. The name Sitia itself is probably the result of rebracketing of the prefix "s-" &lt; σε at + Ητεία.</p><br>
<h3>Venetian Era</h3><br>
<p>The town was later expanded and fortified by the Venetians who used it as a base of operations for the Eastern Mediterranean. During the Venetian occupation, the town was destroyed three times: by an earthquake in 1508, by a pirate attack in 1538 and finally by the Venetians themselves in 1651. Sitia was then conquered by the Ottoman Empire.</p><br>
<h3>Modern Era</h3><br>
<p>After the Venetians moved out of Crete, the town was abandoned for two centuries until it was resettled by farmers in 1869. The main remnant of the Venetian occupation is the Kazarma (from Italian casa di arma), the old fortress overlooking the harbour.</p><br>
<h2>Infrastructure</h2><br>
<p>The municipality of Sitia is served by the Sitia Public Airport which offers several domestic destinations. The first landing occurred on June 7, 1984 and the airport opened officially on June 9, 1984. Construction of new building facilities that included a control tower was completed in May 1993. Runway and apron extension works were finished in May 2003. Recently (2011), the local authorities have completed negotiations with international travel agents for organizing regular charter flights starting in May 2012. Currently (2011), local officials are under negotiations with the low-cost airline Ryanair.</p><br>
<p>In addition, Sitia is served by a port which connects Sitia and eastern Crete with several other Greek islands as well as with the port of Piraeus. The town also has a marina which accommodates smaller fishing boats and yachts.</p><br>
<h3>Health services</h3><br>
<p>The General Hospital of Sitia was founded in 1947 as a local health center and was later (1994) relocated to a new 7500m (110-bed capacity) building and accordingly upgraded to serve as the main hospital for the municipality of Sitia and the surrounding area.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<h3>Attractions</h3><br>
<p>Moni Toplou, founded in the mid 15th century, is one of the most significant monasteries in Crete.</p><br>
<p>Kazarma fortress, in the town of Sitia.</p><br>
<p>Gorge of the Dead (at Kato Zakros).</p><br>
<p>Various archeological sites with Minoan civilization settlements from the Bronze Age, such as in Itanos and Mochlos.</p><br>
<h3>Notable people</h3><br>
<p>Myson - philosopher (one of the 7 legendary wise men of ancient Greece)</p><br>
<p>Vitsentzos Kornaros - poet (composer of Erotokritos)</p><br>
<p>Stratis Kalogeridis - musician of local folk music</p><br>
<p>Giannis Dermitzakis - musician of local folk music</p><br>
<p>Katerina Papoutsaki - actress</p><br>
<p>Giannis Savvidakis - singer</p><br>
<p>Giorgos Mazonakis - singer</p><br>
<p>Eleni Kastani - actress</p><br>
<p>Jenny Hiloudaki - model</p><br>
<p>Seraina Kazamia - model</p><br>
<p>The Allegheny Mountain Range, informally the Alleghenies and also spelled Alleghany and Allegany, is part of the vast Appalachian Mountain Range of the eastern United States and Canada and posed a significant barrier to land travel in less technologically advanced eras. The barrier range has a northeast–southwest orientation and runs for about 400 miles  from north-central Pennsylvania, through western Maryland and eastern West Virginia, to southwestern Virginia.</p><br>
<p>The Alleghenies comprise the rugged western-central portion of the Appalachians. They rise to approximately 4,862 feet (1,483 m) in northeastern West Virginia. In the east, they are dominated by a high, steep escarpment known as the Allegheny Front. In the west, they slope down into the closely associated Allegheny Plateau, which extends into Ohio and Kentucky. The principal settlements of the Alleghenies are Altoona, State College, and Johnstown, Pennsylvania; and Cumberland, Maryland.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The name is derived from the Allegheny River, which drains only a small portion of the Alleghenies in west-central Pennsylvania. The meaning of the word, which comes from the Lenape (Delaware) Indians, is not definitively known but is usually translated as "fine river". A Lenape legend tells of an ancient tribe called the "Allegewi" who lived on the river and were defeated by the Lenape. Allegheny is the early French spelling (as in Allegheny River, which was once part of New France), and Allegany is closer to the early English spelling (as in Allegany County, Maryland or Alleghany County, Virginia).</p><br>
<p>The word "Allegheny" was once commonly used to refer to the whole of what are now called the Appalachian Mountains. John Norton used it (spelled variously) around 1810 to refer to the mountains in Tennessee and Georgia. Around the same time, Washington Irving proposed renaming the United States either "Appalachia" or "Alleghania". In 1861, Arnold Henry Guyot published the first systematic geologic study of the whole mountain range. His map labeled the range as the "Alleghanies", but his book was titled On the Appalachian Mountain System. As late as 1867, John Muir—in his book A Thousand Mile Walk to the Gulf—used the word "Alleghanies" in referring to the southern Appalachians.</p><br>
<p>There was no general agreement about the "Appalachians" versus the "Alleghanies" until the late 19th century.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Extent</h3><br>
<p>From northeast to southwest, the Allegheny Mountains run about 400 mi. From west to east, at their widest, they are about 100 mi.</p><br>
<p>Although there are no official boundaries to the Allegheny Mountains region, it may be generally defined to the east by the Great Appalachian Valley (locally called the Cumberland Valley in Pennsylvania and the Shenandoah Valley in Virginia); to the north by the Susquehanna River valley; and to the south by the New River valley. To the west, the Alleghenies grade down into the dissected Allegheny Plateau (of which they are sometimes considered to be a part). The westernmost ridges are considered to be the Laurel and Chestnut Ridges in Pennsylvania and Laurel and Rich Mountains in West Virginia.</p><br>
<p>The mountains to the south of the Alleghenies—the Appalachians in westernmost Virginia, eastern Kentucky, and eastern Tennessee—are the Cumberlands. The Alleghenies and the Cumberlands both constitute part of the Ridge and Valley Province of the Appalachians.</p><br>
<h3>Allegheny Front and Allegheny Highlands</h3><br>
<p>The eastern edge of the Alleghenies is marked by the Allegheny Front, which is also sometimes considered the eastern terminus of the Allegheny Plateau. This great escarpment roughly follows a portion of the Eastern Continental Divide in this area. A number of impressive gorges and valleys drain the Alleghenies: to the east, Smoke Hole Canyon (South Branch Potomac River), and to the west the New River Gorge and the Blackwater and Cheat Canyons. Thus, about half the precipitation falling on the Alleghenies makes its way west to the Mississippi and half goes east to Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic seaboard.</p><br>
<p>The highest ridges of the Alleghenies are just west of the Front, which has an east/west elevational change of up to 3,000 ft. Absolute elevations of the Allegheny Highlands reach nearly 5,000 ft, with the highest elevations in the southern part of the range. The highest point in the Allegheny Mountains is Spruce Knob (4,863 ft/1,482 m), on Spruce Mountain in West Virginia. Other notable Allegheny highpoints include Thorny Flat on Cheat Mountain (4,848 ft/1478 m), Bald Knob on Back Allegheny Mountain (4,842 ft/1476 m), and Mount Porte Crayon (4,770 ft/1,454 m), all in West Virginia; Dans Mountain (2,898 ft/883m) in Maryland, Backbone Mountain (3360 ft/1024 m), the highest point in Maryland; Mount Davis (3,213 ft/979 m), the highest point in Pennsylvania, and the second highest, Blue Knob (3,146 ft/959 m).</p><br>
<h3>Development</h3><br>
<p>There are very few sizable cities in the Alleghenies. The four largest are (in descending order of population): Altoona, State College, Johnstown (all in Pennsylvania) and Cumberland (in Maryland). In the 1970s and 80s, the Interstate Highway System was extended into the northern portion of the Alleghenies, and the region is now served by a network of federal expressways—Interstates 80, 70/76 and 68. Interstate 64 traverses the southern extremity of the range, but the Central Alleghenies (the "High Alleghenies" of eastern West Virginia) have posed special problems for highway planners owing to the regions very rugged terrain and environmental sensitivities (see Corridor H.) This region is still served by a rather sparse secondary highway system and remains considerably lower in population density than surrounding regions.</p><br>
<p>In the telecommunications field, a unique impediment to development in the central Allegheny region is the United States National Radio Quiet Zone (NRQZ), a large rectangle of land—about 13,000 square miles—that straddles the border area of Virginia and West Virginia. Created in 1958 by the Federal Communications Commission, the NRQZ severely restricts all omnidirectional and high-power radio transmissions, although cell phone service is allowed throughout much of the area.</p><br>
<h3>Protected areas</h3><br>
<p>Much of the Monongahela (West Virginia), George Washington (West Virginia, Virginia) and Jefferson (Virginia) National Forests lie within the Allegheny Mountains. (No part of the wooded Alleghenies in Maryland or Pennsylvania, however, is managed by the USA Forest Service.) The Alleghenies also include a number of federally designated wilderness areas, such as the Dolly Sods Wilderness, Laurel Fork Wilderness, and Cranberry Wilderness in West Virginia.</p><br>
<p>The mostly completed Allegheny Trail, a project of the West Virginia Scenic Trails Association since 1975, runs the length of the range within West Virginia. The northern terminus is at the Mason–Dixon line and the southern is at the West Virginia-Virginia border on Peters Mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The bedrock of the Alleghenies is mostly sandstone and metamorphosed sandstone, quartzite, which is extremely resistant to weathering. Prominent beds of resistant conglomerate can be found in some areas, such as the Dolly Sods. When it weathers, it leaves behind a pure white quartzite gravel. The rock layers of the Alleghenies were formed during the Appalachian orogeny.</p><br>
<p>Because of intense freeze-thaw cycles in the higher Alleghenies, there is little native bedrock exposed in most areas. The ground surface usually rests on a massive jumble of sandstone rocks, with air space between them, that are gradually moving down-slope. The crest of the Allegheny Front is an exception, where high bluffs are often exposed.</p><br>
<p>Mineral springs in the High Alleghenies attracted Native Americans and 18th century white settlers and provided a modest incentive to the local economy. The spas developing around these geological features include celebrated resorts that continue to cater to an exclusive clientele, such as The Greenbrier (White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia; hotel built 1858) and The Homestead (Hot Springs, Virginia; original lodge built 1766).</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>The High Alleghenies are noted for their forests of red spruce, balsam fir, and mountain ash, trees typically found much farther north. Hardwood forests also include yellow birch, sugar and red maple, eastern hemlock, and black cherry. American beech, pine and hickory can also be found. The forests of the entire region are now almost all second- or third-growth forests, the original trees having been removed in the late 19th and (in West Virginia) early 20th centuries. The wild onion known as the ramp (Allium tricoccum) is also present in the deeper forests.</p><br>
<p>Certain isolated areas in the High Alleghenies are well known for their open expanses of sphagnum bogs and heath shrubs (e.g., Dolly Sods, Cranberry Glades). Many plant communities are indeed similar to those of sea-level eastern Canada. But the ecosystems within the Alleghenies are remarkably varied. In recent decades, the many stages of ecologic succession throughout the area have made the region one of enduring interest to botanists.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>The larger megafauna which once inhabited the High Alleghenies—elk, bison, mountain lion—were all exterminated during the 19th century. They survived longer in this area, however, than in other parts of the eastern United States. Naturalist John James Audubon reported that by 1851 a few eastern elk (Cervus canadensis canadiensis) could still be found in the Alleghany Mountains but that by then they were virtually gone from the remainder of their range. Mammals in the Allegheny region today include whitetail deer, chipmunk, raccoon, skunk, groundhog, opossum, weasel, field mouse, flying squirrel, cottontail rabbit, gray foxes, red foxes, gray squirrels, red squirrels and a cave bat. Bobcat, snowshoe hare, wild boar and black bear and coyote are also found in the forests and parks of the Alleghenies. Mink and beaver are much less often seen.</p><br>
<p>These mountains and plateau have over 20 species of reptiles represented as lizard, skink, turtle and snake. Some of the icterid birds visit the mountains as well as the hermit thrush and wood thrush. North American migrant birds live throughout the mountains during the warmer seasons. Occasionally, osprey and eagles can be found nesting along the streams. The hawks and owls are the most common birds of prey.</p><br>
<p>The water habitats of the Alleghenies hold 24 families of fish. Amphibian species number about 21, among them hellbenders, lungless salamanders, and various toads and frogs. The Alleghenies provide habitat for about 54 species of common invertebrate. These include Gastropoda, slugs, leech, earthworms and grub worm. Cave crayfish (Cambarus nerterius) live alongside a little over seven dozen cave invertebrates.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Pre-contact Native Americans</h3><br>
<p>The indigenous people inhabiting the Allegheny Mountains emerged from the greater region&#39;s archaic and mound building cultures, particularly the Adena and Eastern Woodland peoples with a later Hopewellian influence. These Late Middle Woodland culture people have been called the Montaine (c. A.D. 500 to 1000) culture. Their neighbors, the woodland Buck Garden culture, lived in the western valleys of the central Allegheny range. The Montaine sites extend from the tributaries of the upper Potomac River region south to the New River tributaries. These also were influenced by the earlier Armstrong culture of the more southwestern portions northern sub-range of the Ouasioto (Cumberland) Mountains and by the more easterly Virginia Woodland people. The Late Woodland Montaine were less influenced by Hopewellian trade from Ohio, although similarly polished stone tools have been found among the Montaine sites in the Tygart Valley. Small groups of Montaine people appear to have lingered much beyond their classically defined period in parts of the most mountainous valleys.</p><br>
<p>The watershed of the Monongahela River is within the northwestern Alleghenies, and it is from it that the Monongahela culture takes its name. The Godwin-Portman site (36AL39) located in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, had a possible Fort Ancient (c. AD 850 to 1680) presence during the 15th century. Washington Boro ceramics have been found on the Barton (18AG3) and Llewellyn (18AG26) sites in Maryland on the northeastern slopes of the late Susquehannock sequence. The early Monongahela (c. AD 900 to 1630) are called the Drew Tradition in Pennsylvania. According to Richard L. George: "I believe that some of the Monongahela were of Algonquin origin.... Other scholars have suggested that Iroquoian speakers were interacting with Late Monongahela people, and additional evidence is presented to confirm this. I conclude that the archaeologically conceived term, Monongahela, likely encompasses speakers of several languages, including Siouan." According to Dr Maslowski of West Virginia in 2009: "The New River Drainage and upper Potomac represents the range of the Huffman Phase (Page) hunting and gathering area or when it is found in small amounts on village sites, trade ware or Page women being assimulated into another village (tribe)." Finally, according to Prof Potter of Virginia, they had occupied the eastern slopes of the Alleghenies on the upper Potomac to the northern, lower Shenandoah Valley region before the A.D. 1300 Luray Phase (Algonquian) peoples&#39; "invasion". It is thought that these ancient Alleghenians were pushed from the classic Huffman Phase of the eastern slopes of the Alleghenies to the Blue Ridge Mountains in western Virginia, which was eastern Siouan territory.</p><br>
<p>In 1669, John Lederer and members of his party became the first Europeans to crest the Blue Ridge Mountains and the first to see the Shenandoah Valley and the Allegheny Mountains beyond.</p><br>
<h3>Native Americans in the 17th century</h3><br>
<p>The proto-historic Alleghenies can be exampled by the earliest journals of the colonists. According to Batts and Fallows September, 1671 Expedition, they found Mehetan Indians of Mountain "Cherokee-Iroquois" mix on the New River tributaries. This journal does not identify the "Salt Village", but, that the "Mehetan" were associated with these and today thought to be "Monetons", Siouans. However, this journal does not identify the "Salt Village" below the Kanawha Falls, but, that simply the "Mehetan" were associated with these. He explained, below the "Salt Villages", a mass of hostile Indians had, implied, arrived and some believe these to be "Shanwans" of Vielles Expedition of 1692~94, ancient Shawnee. In 1669, John Lederer of Maryland for the Virginia Colony and the Tennessee Cherokee had visited the mouth of the Kanawha and reported no hostilities on the lower streams of the Alleghenies. The Mohetan representative through a Siouan translator explained to Mr Batts and Mr Fallon, Colonel Abraham Woods exploriers 1671-2, that he (Moheton Native American) could not say much about the people below the "Salt Village" because they (Mountain Cherokee) were not associated with them. The Mohetan was armed by this time of 1671 for the Mohetan Representative was given several pouches of ammunition for his and the others weapons as a token of friendship. Somebody had already been trading within the central Alleghenies before the Virginians historical record begins in the Allegheny Mountains. Some earlier scholars found evidence these Proto-historics were either Cistercians of Spanish Ajacan Occuquan outpost on the Potomac River or Jesuits and their Kahnawake Praying Indians (Mohawk) on the Riviere de la Ronceverte. The "Kanawha Madonna" may date from this period or earlier. Where the New River breaks through Peters&#39; Mountain, near Pearisburg Virginia the 1671 journal mentions the "Moketans had formerly lived".</p><br>
<p>According to a number of early 17th century maps, the Messawomeake or "Mincquas" (Dutch) occupied the northern Allegheny Mountains. The "Shatteras" (an ancient Tutelo) occupied the Ouasioto Mountains and the earliest term Canaraguy (Kanawhans otherwise CanawestRelocated Subjects of the 5 Nations,</p><br>
<p>To my friend Winjack, King of the Ganawese Indians on Sasqua- hanna, "Brother: I have heard that your friends the Nanticokes are now at yr. Town upon their Journey to the five Nations. I know they are a peaceable People that live quietly amongst the English in Mary Land, and therefore I shall be glad to see them, and will be ready to do them any kindness in my power." New Castle, June 16, 1722. Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania By Pennsylvania. Provincial Council, Samuel Hazard, Pennsylvania Committee. To Colo. Juhn French, Francis Worley, & James Mitehell, Esqrs. "Whereas, the three Nations of Indians settled on the North side of the River Sasquahanuah, in His Maties Peace & under the protection of this Government, viz: The Conestogoes, The Shawanoea, & The Cawnoyes, are very much disturbed, and the Peace of thia Colony is hourly in danger of being broken by persons, who pursuing their own private gain without any regard to Justice, Have attempted & others do still threaten to Survey and take up Lauds on the South West Branch of the sd. River, right against the Towns & Settlements of the said Indians, without any Right or pretence of Authority so to do, from the Proprietor of this Province unto whom the Lands unquestionably belong." at Conestogoe, the 18th day of June, in the Eighth year of our Sovereign Lord George. Annoq. Dom. 1722. Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania By Pennsylvania. Provincial Council, Samuel Hazard, Pennsylvania Committee on the 1671 French map occupied the southerly Alleghenies. They were associated with the Allegheny "Cherokee" and Eastern Siouan as trade-movers and canoe transporters. The Calicuas, an ancient most northern Cherokee, migrated or was pushed from the Central Ohio Valley onto the north eastern slopes of the Alleghenies of the ancient Messawomeake, Iroquois tradesmen to 1630s Kent Island, by 1710 maps. Sometime before 1712, the Canawest ("Kanawhans"-"Canallaway"-"Canaragay") had moved to the upper Potomac and made a Treaty with the newly established trading post of Fort Conolloway which would become a part of western Maryland during the 1740s.</p><br>
<h3>White trading posts and other settlements</h3><br>
<p>Prior to European exploration and settlement, trails through the Alleghenies had been transited for many generations by American Indian tribes such as the Iroquois, Shawnee, Delaware, Catawba and others, for purposes of trade, hunting and, especially, warfare. Western Virginia "Cherokee" were reported at Cherokee Falls, todays Valley Falls of the Tygart Valley. Indian trader Charles Pokes trading post dates from 1731 with the Calicuas of Cherokee Falls still in the region from the previous century.</p><br>
<p>The "London Scribes" (The Crown&#39;s taxation records) vaguely mentions the colonial Alleghenian location of only a few other early colonial trading locations. A general knowledge of these few outposts are more of traditional telling of some local people. However, an example is the "Van Metre" trading house mentioned in an earlier edition of the "Wonderful West Virginia Magazine" being on the South Branches of the upper reaches of the Potomac. Another very early trading house appears on a lower Greenbrier Valley map during the earlier decades of the 18th century.</p><br>
<p>As early as 1719, new arrivals from Europe began to cross the lower Susquehanna River and settle illegally in defiance of the Board of Property in Pennsylvania, on un-warranted land of the northeastern drainage rivers of the Allegheny Mountains. Several Indian Nations requested the removal of "Maryland Intruders". Some of these moved onward as territory opened up beyond the Alleghenies.</p><br>
<p>The first permanent white settlers west of the Alleghenies have traditionally been considered to have been two New Englanders: Jacob Marlin and Stephen Sewell, who arrived in the Greenbrier Valley in 1749. They built a cabin together at what would become Marlinton, West Virginia, but after disputing over religion, Sewell moved into a nearby hollowed-out sycamore tree. In 1751, surveyor John Lewis (father of Andrew Lewis) discovered the pair. Sewell eventually settled on the eastern side of Sewell Mountain, near present-day Rainelle, West Virginia. They may well have been the first to settle what was then called the "western waters"—i.e., in the regions where streams flowed westward to the Gulf of Mexico rather than eastward to the Atlantic.</p><br>
<h3>First surveys</h3><br>
<p>Among the first whites to penetrate into the Allegheny Mountains were surveyors attempting to settle a dispute over the extent of lands belonging to either Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron or to the English Privy Council. An expedition of 1736 by John Savage established the location of the source of the North Branch Potomac River. In March 1742, a frontiersman named John Howard—along with his son and others—had been commissioned by Governor Gooch to explore the southwest of Virginia as far as the Mississippi River. Following Cedar Creek through the Natural Bridge, they floated in buffalo-skin boats down the New, Coal, Kanawha, and Ohio Rivers to the Mississippi. Although captured by the French before he reached Natchez, Howard was eventually released and (in 1745) was interviewed by Fairfax. Howards description of the South Branch Potomac River resulted in the definite decision by Fairfax to secure his lands in the region. An expedition under Peter Jefferson and Thomas Lewis in the following year emplaced the "Fairfax Stone" at the source of the North Branch and established a line of demarcation (the "Fairfax Line") extending from the stone south-east to the headwaters of the Rappahannock River. Lewis journal of that expedition provides a valuable view of the Allegheny country before its settlement. Jefferson and Joshua Frys "Fry-Jefferson Map" of 1751 accurately depicted the Alleghenies for the first time. In the following decades, pioneer settlers arrived in the Alleghenies, especially during Colonial Virginias Robert Dinwiddie era (1751–58). These included squatters by the Quit-rent Law. Some had preceded the official surveyors using a "hack on the tree and field of corn" marking land ownership approved by the Virginia Colonial Governor who had to be replaced with Governor John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore.</p><br>
<h3>First roads</h3><br>
<p>Trans-Allegheny travel had been facilitated when a military trail—Braddock Road—was blazed and opened by the Ohio Company in 1751. (It followed an earlier Indian and pioneer trail known as Nemacolin&#39;s Path.) Braddock Road connected Cumberland, Maryland (the upper limit of navigation on the Potomac River) and the forks of the Ohio River (the future Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania). It received its name from the British leader of the French and Indian War (1754–63), General Edward Braddock, who led the ill-fated Braddock expedition four years later.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the war, hunting and trading with Indians were primary motivations for white movement across the mountains. Permanent white settlement of the northern Alleghenies was facilitated by the explorations and stories of such noted Marylanders as the Indian fighter and trader Thomas Cresap (1702–90) and the backwoodsman and hunter Meshach Browning (1781–1859). In the late 18th century, a massive migration to the Monongahela River basin took place over three main routes: along the old Braddock Road via Winchester, Virginia; through the Shenandoah Valley to the head of the Cheat River and from there to the Monongahela; and along the Lincoln Highway to Ligonier, Pennsylvania and thence along Jacob&#39;s Creek to the Monongahela. These immigrants were predominantly Scotch-Irish, German, and, to a lesser extent, British stock.</p><br>
<p>The Braddock Road was superseded by the Cumberland Road—also called the National Road—one of the first major improved highways in the United States to be built by the federal government. Construction began in 1811 at Cumberland and the road reached Wheeling, Virginia (now West Virginia) on the Ohio River in 1818. Just to the south, the state-funded Staunton and Parkersburg Turnpike was constructed to provide a direct route for the settlements of the Shenandoah Valley to the Ohio River by way of the Tygart Valley and Little Kanawha Rivers. Planned and approved in 1826 and completed in 1848, the Staunton and Parkersburg was maintained by fees (tolls) collected at toll houses placed at regular intervals.</p><br>
<h3>First railroads and canals</h3><br>
<p>Construction on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad began at Baltimore in 1828; the B&O traversed the Alleghenies, changing the economy and society of the Mountains forever. The B&O had reached Martinsburg, (West) Virginia by May 1842, Hancock, (West) Virginia, by June, Cumberland, Maryland, on November 5, 1842, Piedmont, (West) Virginia on July 21, 1851 and Fairmont, (West) Virginia on June 22, 1852. (It finally reached its Ohio River terminus at Wheeling, (West) Virginia on January 1, 1853.)</p><br>
<p>The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal—also begun in 1828, but at Georgetown—was also a public work of enormous economic and social significance for the Alleghenies. It approached Hancock, Maryland by 1839. From the beginning, the B&O Railroad and the C&O Canal operated in bitter legal and commercial competition with one another as they vied for rights to the narrow strips of land along the Potomac. When the Canal finally reached Cumberland in 1850, the Railroad had already arrived eight years before. Debt-ridden, the Canal company dropped its plan to continue construction of the next 180 mi of the Canal into the Ohio Valley. The company had long realized—especially with the difficult experience of digging the Paw Paw Tunnel—that the original plan of construction over the mountains and all the way down the Youghiogheny River to Pittsburgh was "wildly unrealistic".</p><br>
<p>Public works financed at the state level were not lacking during this period. The Main Line of Public Works was a railroad and canal system across southern Pennsylvania between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. Built between 1826 and 1834 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, it included the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, the Allegheny Portage Railroad and the Pennsylvania Canal system.</p><br>
<h3>Civil War</h3><br>
<p>Lying astride the border separating the Union and Confederacy, the Alleghenies were among the areas most directly affected by the American Civil War (1861–1865). One of the earliest campaigns of the War was fought for control of the Staunton and Parkersburg Turnpike and for the access it provided to the B&O Railroad. The Battle of Rich Mountain (July 11, 1861) gave the Federals control of the turnpike, of Tygarts Valley, and of all of the territory of western Virginia to the north and west, including the railroad. (Union General George McClellans victory in this theater would ultimately bring him promotion to commander the Army of the Potomac.) The Federals fortified at Cheat Summit, and the Confederates established strongholds at Camp Bartow and Camp Allegheny. Here they faced each other warily through the fall of 1861 and the following winter. General Robert E. Lees attempt to attack Cheat Summit Fort (September 12–15, 1861) and Federal attempts to attack Bartow and Allegheny, all failed to change the strategic stalemate. Finally, the harsh, high elevation winter achieved what the troops had failed to accomplish, and in the spring of 1862 both armies moved on down the pike to the Battle of McDowell (May 8, 1862), and then on to fight what became General Stonewall Jacksons Shenandoah Valley Campaign (spring 1862). Two years later, much of this contested area (along with much else) became part of the new state of West Virginia. The very rugged terrain of the Alleghenies was not at all amenable to a large-scale maneuver war and so the actions that the area witnessed for the remainder of the conflict were generally guerrilla in nature.</p><br>
<h3>Coal and timber industries</h3><br>
<p>With the further spread of the railroad networks in the 1890s and early 1900s, many new towns developed and thrived in the Alleghenies. The lumbering and coal industries that boomed in the wake of the railroads brought a measure of prosperity to the region, but most of the revenues flowed out of the mountains to the cities of the eastern seaboard where the captains of industry were headquartered. This inequity created a bitter legacy that would last for generations and form the foundation of the mountaineers poverty and the areas immense environmental degradation.</p><br>
<p>The most momentous disaster to afflict the people of the Alleghenies was the Johnstown Flood—locally known as the "Great Flood of 1889"—which occurred on May 31 of that year after the catastrophic failure of the South Fork Dam on the Little Conemaugh River 14 mi upstream of the town of Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The dam broke after several days of extremely heavy rainfall, unleashing 20 million tons of water (18 million cubic meters) from the reservoir known as Lake Conemaugh. (This body of water had been built as part of the Main Line of Public Works, then abandoned.) With a flow rate that temporarily equalled that of the Mississippi River, the flood killed 2,209 people and caused US$17 million of damage (about $425 million in 2012 dollars). The American Red Cross, led by Clara Barton and with 50 volunteers, undertook a major disaster relief effort. Support for victims came from all over the United States and 18 foreign countries. After the flood, survivors suffered a series of legal defeats in their attempts to recover damages from the dam&#39;s owners. Public indignation at that failure prompted the development in American law changing a fault-based regime to strict liability.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>In the 1920s and &#39;30s, Allegheny highways were extensively paved to provide access for automobiles.</p><br>
<p>From the 1950s to 1992, the United States government maintained a top secret continuity program known as Project Greek Island at The Greenbrier hotel in the Alleghenies of southern West Virginia.</p><br>
<p>In 1963, Dr. Martin Luther King referenced the Alleghenies—among several in an evocative list of mountains—in his famous "I Have a Dream" speech, when he said "Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania!"</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>The Flight 93 National Memorial is located at the site of the crash of United Airlines Flight 93—which was hijacked in the September 11 attacks—in Stonycreek Township, Pennsylvania, about 2 mi north of Shanksville. The memorial honors the passengers and crew of Flight 93, who stopped Al-Qaeda terrorists from reaching their intended target.</p><br>
<h2>Photo gallery</h2><br>
<p>The Cuando River is a river in south-central Africa flowing through Angola and Namibia&#39;s Caprivi Strip and into the Linyanti Swamp on the northern border of Botswana. Below the swamp, the river is called the Linyanti River and, farther east, the Chobe River, before it flows into the Zambezi River.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>The Cuando rises in the central plateau of Angola on the slopes of Mount Tembo, thence flowing southeast along the Zambian border. Along this reach it flows in a maze of channels in a swampy corridor 5–10 km wide (map 1: the border with Zambia is the eastern bank of this floodplain, not the river channel). As with all rivers in south-central Africa its flow varies enormously between the rainy season when it floods and may be several kilometres wide, and the dry season when it may disappear into marshes.</p><br>
<p>The Cuando continues in its marshy channel across the neck of the Caprivi Strip of Namibia (map, 2) and then forms the border between Namibia and Botswana as it continues southeast. Some 10,014 years ago, the Cuando merged with the Okavango River and they flowed south to Lake Makgadikgadi (which is a seasonal wetland in current times), but the land in that area was uplifted. As a consequence the Cuando now meets slightly higher ground (map, 4) and breaks up into many channels and swamps (called the Linyanti Swamp) dotted with alluvial islands, nearly disappearing into the Kalahari sands like the Okavango (map, 5). But instead it has diverted east and has been captured by the Zambezi. The flow turns sharply east, still forming the border with Botswana. In the dry season there are few open channels through the swamps and marshes. Beginning at this point it is known as the Linyanti (map, 6), and after it flows through a seasonal lake, Lake Liambesi (map, 7), it is called the Chobe (map, 8). The river then flows into the Zambezi just above the Kazungula Ferry (map, 9).</p><br>
<p>In years when the Okavango experiences a good flood some of the water escapes east along the normally dry channel of the Magwekwana River (also known as Selinda Spillway) into the Linyanti Swamp, thus entering the Zambezi basin. The Selinda Spillway and the Boteti River are the only outlets of the Okavango basin.</p><br>
<p>On the north side of the Chobe River are the Caprivi Swamps, on the edge of which is the ruined capital of the Kololo people who conquered Barotseland in the 19th Century.</p><br>
<p>So much of the water of the Cuando, Linyanti and Chobe is lost to evaporation in the various swamps that its contribution to the flow of the Zambezi is very small except in occasional years when it floods excessively.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>The Cuando system is noted for its wildlife and for most of its length the land either side is protected as game reserves or wildlife management areas. Some of these suffered poaching during wars and conflict in Namibia and Angola, but with peace restored in those countries they have the chance of returning to their former state.</p><br>
<p>The national parks through which it passes or on which it borders are:</p><br>
<p>Coutada Publica do Luiana (Angola)</p><br>
<p>Sioma Ngwezi National Park (Zambia)</p><br>
<p>Bwabwata National Park (Namibia)</p><br>
<p>Mudumu National Park (Namibia)</p><br>
<p>Mamili National Park (Namibia)</p><br>
<p>Chobe National Park (Botswana)</p><br>
<h2>Sources</h2><br>
<p>"Afrique Centre et Sud", Carte Routiere et Touristique Michelin, Paris (1996)</p><br>
<p>C. Michael Hogan (2008) Makgadikgadi, The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham</p><br>
<p>Robert Mepham, R. H. Hughes, G. M. Bernacsek (1992) A Directory of African Wetlands, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, United Nations Environment Programme, World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 820 pages</p><br>
<p>Nevalı Çori was an early Neolithic settlement on the middle Euphrates, in Şanlıurfa Province, Southeastern Anatolia, Turkey. The site is known for having some of the world&#39;s oldest known temples and monumental sculpture. Together with the earlier site of Göbekli Tepe, it has revolutionised scientific understanding of the Eurasian Neolithic period. The oldest domesticated Einkorn wheat was found there.</p><br>
<p>The settlement was located about 490 m above sea level, in the foothills of the Taurus Mountains, on both banks of the Kantara stream, a tributary of the Euphrates.</p><br>
<h2>Excavation</h2><br>
<p>The site was examined from 1983 to 1991 in the context of rescue excavations during the erection of the Atatürk Dam below Samsat. Excavations were conducted by a team from the University of Heidelberg under the direction of Professor Harald Hauptmann. Together with numerous other archaeological sites in the vicinity, Nevalı Çori has since been inundated by the damming of the Euphrates.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological chronology</h2><br>
<p>Nevalı Çori could be placed within the local relative chronology on the basis of its flint tools. The occurrence of narrow unretouched Byblos-type points places it on Oliver Aurenches Phase 3, i.e. early to middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB). Some tools indicate continuity into Phase 4, which is similar in date to Late PPNB. An even finer chronological distinction within Phase 3 is permitted by the settlements architecture; the house type with underfloor channels, typical of Nevalı Çori strata I-IV, also characterises the "Intermediate Layer" at Çayönü, while the differing plan of the single building in stratum V, House 1, is more clearly connected to the buildings of the "Cellular Plan Layer" at Çayönü.</p><br>
<h3>Common date</h3><br>
<p>In terms of absolute dates, four radiocarbon dates have been determined for Nevalı Çori. Three are from Stratum II and date it with some certainty to the second half of the 9th millennium BC, which coincides with early dates from Çayönü and with Mureybet IVA and thus supports the relative chronology above. The fourth dates to the 10th millennium BC, which, if correct, would indicate the presence of an extremely early phase of PPNB at Nevalı Çori.</p><br>
<h2>Houses</h2><br>
<p>The settlement had five architectural levels. The excavated architectural remains were of long rectangular houses containing two to three parallel flights of rooms, interpreted as mezzanines. These are adjacent to a similarly rectangular ante-structure, subdivided by wall projections, which should be seen as a residential space. This type of house is characterized by thick, multi-layered foundations made of large angular cobbles and boulders, the gaps filled with smaller stones so as to provide a relatively even surface to support the superstructure. These foundations are interrupted every 1-1.5m by underfloor channels, at right angles to the main axis of the houses, which were covered in stone slabs but open to the sides. They may have served the drainage, aeration or the cooling of the houses. 23 such structures were excavated, they are strikingly similar to structures from the so-called channeled subphase at Çayönü.</p><br>
<p>An area in the northwest part of the village appears to be of special importance. Here, a cult complex had been cut into the hillside. It had three subsequent architectural phases, the most recent belonging to Stratum III, the middle one to Stratum II and the oldest to Stratum I. The two more recent phases also possessed a terrazzo-style lime cement floor, which did not survive from the oldest phase. Parallels are known from Cayönü and Göbekli Tepe. Monolithic pillars similar to those at Göbekli Tepe were built into its dry stone walls, its interior contained two free-standing pillars of 3 m height. The excavator assumes light flat roofs. Similar structures are only known from Göbekli Tepe so far.</p><br>
<p>Soundings cut to examine the western side of the valley also revealed rectilinear architecture in 2-3 layers.</p><br>
<h2>Sculpture and clay figurines</h2><br>
<p>The local limestone was carved into numerous statues and smaller sculptures, including a more than life-sized bare human head with a snake or sikha-like tuft. There is also a statue of a bird. Some of the pillars also bore reliefs, including ones of human hands. The free-standing anthropomorphic figures of limestone excavated at Nevalı Çori belong to the earliest known life-size sculptures. Comparable material has been found at Göbekli Tepe.</p><br>
<p>Several hundred small clay figurines (about 5 cm high), most of them depicting humans, have been interpreted as votive offerings. They were fired at temperatures between 500-600 °C, which suggests the development of ceramic firing technology before the advent of pottery proper.</p><br>
<h2>Burials</h2><br>
<p>Some of the houses contained depositions of human skulls and incomplete skeletons.</p><br>
<p>Mount Auburn Cemetery is the first rural cemetery in the United States, located on the line between Cambridge and Watertown in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, 4 miles west of Boston, Massachusetts. It is the burial site of many prominent members of the Boston Brahmins, as well being National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>Dedicated in 1831 and set with classical monuments in a rolling landscaped terrain, it marked a distinct break with Colonial-era burying grounds and church-affiliated graveyards. The appearance of this type of landscape coincides with the rising popularity of the term "cemetery," derived from the Greek for "a sleeping place." This language and outlook eclipsed the previous harsh view of death and the afterlife embodied by old graveyards and church burial plots.</p><br>
<p>The 174 acre cemetery is important both for its historical aspects and for its role as an arboretum. It is Watertown’s largest contiguous open space and extends into Cambridge to the east, adjacent to the Cambridge City Cemetery and Sand Banks Cemetery. It was designated a National Historic Landmark District in 2003 for its pioneering role in 19th-century cemetery development.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The land that became Mount Auburn Cemetery was originally named Stone&#39;s Farm, though locals referred to it as "Sweet Auburn" after the 1770 poem "The Deserted Village" by Oliver Goldsmith. Mount Auburn Cemetery was inspired by Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris and was itself an inspiration to cemetery designers, most notably at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn (1838) and Abney Park in London. Mount Auburn Cemetery was designed largely by Henry Alexander Scammell Dearborn with assistance from Jacob Bigelow and Alexander Wadsworth.</p><br>
<p>Bigelow came up with the idea for Mount Auburn as early as 1825, though a site was not acquired until five years later. Bigelow, a medical doctor, was concerned about the unhealthiness of burials under churches as well as the possibility of running out of space. With help from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Mount Auburn Cemetery was founded on 70 acre of land authorized by the Massachusetts Legislature for use as a garden or rural cemetery. The original land cost $6,000; it later extended to 170 acre. The main gate was built in the Egyptian Revival style and cost $10,000 ($249,818.60 in 2015). The first president of the Mount Auburn Association, Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story, dedicated the cemetery in 1831. Storys dedication address, delivered on September 24, 1831, set the model for many more addresses in the following three decades. Garry Wills focuses on it as an important precursor to President Lincolns Gettysburg Address.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery is credited as the beginning of the American public parks and gardens movement. It set the style for other suburban American cemeteries such as Laurel Hill Cemetery (Philadelphia, 1836), Mount Hope Cemetery (Bangor, Maine, 1834), Americas first municipal rural cemetery; Green-Wood Cemetery (Brooklyn, 1838), The Green Mount Cemetery (Baltimore, Maryland, 1839) Mount Hope Cemetery (Rochester, NY, 1838), Allegheny Cemetery (Pittsburgh, 1844), Albany Rural Cemetery (Menands, New York, 1844), Swan Point Cemetery (Providence, Rhode Island 1846), Spring Grove Cemetery (Cincinnati, 1844), and Forest Hills Cemetery (Jamaica Plain, 1848) as well as Oakwood Cemetery in Syracuse, New York. It can be considered the link between Capability Browns English landscape gardens and Frederick Law Olmsted&#39;s Central Park in New York (1850s).</p><br>
<p>Mount Auburn was established at a time when Americans had a sentimental interest in rural cemeteries. It is still well known for its tranquil atmosphere and accepting attitude toward death. Many of the more traditional monuments feature poppy flowers, symbols of blissful sleep. In the late 1830s, its first unofficial guide, Picturesque Pocket Companion and Visitors Guide Through Mt. Auburn, was published and featured descriptions of some of the more interesting monuments as well as a collection of prose and poetry about death by writers including Nathaniel Hawthorne and Willis Gaylord Clark. Because of the number of visitors, the cemeterys developers carefully regulated the grounds: They had a policy to remove "offensive and improper" monuments and only "proprietors" (i.e., plot owners) could have vehicles on the grounds and were allowed within the gates on Sundays and holidays.</p><br>
<p>In the 1840s, Mount Auburn was considered one of the most popular tourist destinations in the nation, along with Niagara Falls and Mount Vernon. A 16-year-old Emily Dickinson wrote about her visit to Mount Auburn in a letter in 1846. 60,000 people visited the cemetery in 1848 alone.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<p>The cemetery has three notable buildings on its grounds. Washington Tower was designed by Bigelow and built in 1852–54. Named for George Washington, the 62 ft tower was built of Quincy granite and provides excellent views of the area. Bigelow Chapel was built in the 1840s and rebuilt in the 1850s, also of Quincy granite, and was renovated in 1899 under the direction of architect Willard Sears to accommodate a crematorium. Its interior was again renovated in 1924 by Allen and Collins. Through all of these alterations, stained glass windows by Scottish firm of Allan & Ballantyne were preserved.</p><br>
<p>In 1870 the cemetery trustees, feeling the need for additional function space, purchased land across Mount Auburn Street and constructed a reception house. This building was supplanted in the 1890s by the construction of the Story Chapel and Administration Building, adjacent to the main gate. The first reception house was designed by Nathaniel J. Bradlee, and is (like the cemetery) listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The second building was designed by Willard Sears, and is built of Potsdam sandstone in what Sears characterized as "English Perpendicular Style". The chapel in this building was redecorated in 1929 by Allen and Collins to include stained glass by New England artist Earl E. Sanborn.</p><br>
<h2>Cemetery today</h2><br>
<p>More than 93,000 people are buried in the cemetery as of 2003. A number of historically significant people have been interred there since its inception, particularly members of the Boston Brahmins and the Boston elite associated with Harvard University as well as a number of prominent Unitarians.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery is nondenominational and continues to make space available for new plots. The area is well known for its beautiful environs and is a favorite location for bird-watchers; over 220 species of birds have been observed at the cemetery since 1958. Guided tours of the cemetery&#39;s historic, artistic, and horticultural points of interest are available.</p><br>
<p>Mount Auburns collection of over 5,500 trees includes nearly 700 species and varieties. Thousands of very well-kept shrubs and herbaceous plants weave through the cemeterys hills, ponds, woodlands, and clearings. The cemetery contains more than 10 miles (17 km) of roads and many paths. Landscaping styles range from Victorian-era plantings to contemporary gardens, from natural woodlands to formal ornamental gardens, and from sweeping vistas through majestic trees to small enclosed spaces. Many trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants are tagged with botanic labels containing their scientific and common names.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery was among those profiled in the 2005 PBS documentary A Cemetery Special.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<h2>Photo gallery</h2><br>
<p>Mount Auburn Cemetery Fir Avenue.jpgFir Avenue mark in cemetery</p><br>
<p>Mount Auburn Cemetery Entrance gate.jpgEgyptian revival entrance to Mount Auburn Cemetery</p><br>
<p>MtAuburnTower.JPGThe Washington Tower in the cemetery</p><br>
<p>Jacob Bigelow Grave.jpgCemetery designer, Dr. Jacob Bigelow&#39;s grave</p><br>
<p>Nathaniel Bowditch in Mount Auburn Cemetery.JPGNathaniel Bowditch</p><br>
<p>2005-08 DCI Trip-Boston 001.JPGMary Baker Eddy Memorial</p><br>
<p>Mount Auburn Cemeter - Misc View.JPGMount Auburn Cemetery</p><br>
<p>Mount Auburn Cemeter - Hunnewell.JPGHunnewell family obelisk</p><br>
<p>Benjamin Waterhouse grave.jpgDr. Benjamin Waterhouse&#39;s grave</p><br>
<p>CharlesSumnerGrave.jpgCharles Sumner&#39;s grave</p><br>
<p>Pitman family marker, Mount Auburn Cemetery (4402353191).jpgPitman family marker</p><br>
<p>Mount Auburn Cemetery - Martin Milmore sphinx.jpgSphinx monument by Martin Milmore, 1872</p><br>
<p>Weeping_Japanese_Pagoda_Tree_in_Mount_Auburn_Cemetery,_Cambridge-Watertown,_MA_-_8-1-2015.jpgWeeping Japanese pagoda tree</p><br>
<p>Weeping_European_Beech_Tree_in_Mount_Auburn_Cemetery,_Cambridge-Watertown,_MA_-_8-1-2015.jpgWeeping European beech tree</p><br>
<p>Poplar Forest is a plantation and plantation house in Forest, Bedford County, Virginia. Thomas Jefferson designed the plantation and used the property as a private retreat and a revenue-generating plantation. Jefferson inherited the property in 1773 and began designing and working on the plantation in 1806. While Jefferson is the most famous individual associated with the property, it had several owners before being purchased for restoration, preservation, and exhibition in 1984.</p><br>
<p>Slaves were present on the property from the time prior to when Jefferson inherited the plantation through when the United States officially abolished the institution in 1865; recent archaeological excavations at Poplar Forest have provided insights into both the role of slave labor as well as the slave community on the property.</p><br>
<p>Poplar Forest was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1971, and is presently operated as a historic house museum and working by the nonprofit. The Corporation is also responsible for the ongoing archaeological study and restoration work at the property.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Wayles’ daughter Martha Wayles Skelton was married to Thomas Jefferson, and the couple inherited the full 4,819 acres when Wayles died in 1773. The Jeffersons did not immediately continue developing Poplar Forest, nor were they frequent visitors to the property – their focus was on developing Monticello, Thomas’s political and legal career, and raising their family. Martha Jefferson died in 1782, and Thomas spent time away from Virginia in public service following her death, serving as Minister to France (1785-1789), Secretary of State (1790-1793), Vice President (1797-1801), and President (1801-1809). Even in Jefferson’s absence, the plantation was generating revenue from slave labor under the watch of a general steward and a team of overseers; the slave labor force at Poplar Forest produced annual tobacco and wheat crops after 1790.</p><br>
<p>Jefferson conducted annual visits to Poplar Forest beginning in 1810 and ending in 1823; he designed Poplar Forest as his retreat from his larger estate at Monticello. The retreat house was completed in 1816 and his visits ranged from a few days to weeklong stays. He frequently brought his granddaughters Ellen and Cornelia Randolph to the house after it was completed in 1816, and always traveled to Poplar Forest with a small cadre of enslaved men and women who were based at Monticello. Jefferson maintained sole ownership of the property and the slaves until 1790, when he gave 1,000 acres and six slave families to his daughter Martha and her husband Thomas Mann Randolph Jr. Randolph would later divide and sell the rest of Jefferson’s landholdings; he also sold many of Jefferson’s slaves to repay debts.</p><br>
<p>Near the end of his life, Jefferson sought to find permanent residents for the property, and his grandson Francis W. Eppes and wife Mary Elizabeth moved to Poplar Forest shortly after their 1823 marriage. Jefferon died in 1826, and made his last visit to Poplar Forest in 1823. The Eppses sold Poplar Forest in November 1828 to William Cobbs; Cobbs assigned the task of managing the property to his son in law Edward Hutter in 1840 following his marriage to Cobb’s daughter Emma. This period from 1745-1840 in which Poplar Forest was sold many times in quick succession meant that many enslaved men, women, and children were separated from their families as the owners settled their predecessor&#39;s debts. The Cobbs and Hutter families maintained ownership of Poplar Forest into the twentieth century. The Hutter’s son Christian purchased the property in the late nineteenth century and used it as a summer home and working farm into the 1940s using labor from both black and white hired farmhands and tenant farmers.</p><br>
<p>Christian Hutter sold the property to James Watts’ family in 1946; the Watts family operated Poplar Forest as a dairy farm and worked with Phelps Barnum and W. Stuart Thompson to restore the house to the way it appeared during Jefferson’s time. They also did significant landscape development, and sold a majority of the remaining land to a developer who constructed a nine-hole golf course and a lake along the eastern and southern part of the property.</p><br>
<p>Dr. James Johnson purchased the house and 50 acres of land from the Watts family in 1980; the nonprofit Corporation for Jefferson’s Poplar Forest purchased the acreage and the remaining physical structures on the property in 1984. The organization has worked in recent years to reacquire land within the original plantation boundaries, and as of 2008 owned 617 acres of the original property.</p><br>
<h2>Architectural Design</h2><br>
<p>When construction began at Poplar Forest in 1806, Jefferson was still President of the United States and supervised the construction from Washington, DC. Thomas Jefferson was a self-taught architect known for his work at Monticello and the Virginia State Capitol; he frequently borrowed designs from classical sources, and was attracted to Palladio&#39;s classical architecture in Rome as well as designs from 16th century France. Jefferson designed Poplar Forest as his personal retreat house, and selected the property because of its distance from his public life.</p><br>
<p>The octagonal house may have been the first of its kind to have been built in the United States. The house at Poplar Forest is made of brick and has an octagonal floor plan; it consists of a central square space and three sides made of elongated octagon rooms. There is an entry hall on the remaining side of the house, which is two smaller rooms divided by a short entry hall. There is a skylight in the central dining room and its dimensions are 20’ x 20’ x 20’, which makes it a perfect cube. Jefferson also elected to add pedimented porticoes on low arcades that were attached to both the northern and southern facades as well as the east and west stairwells. Scholars agree that the retreat house at Poplar Forest is an excellent example of octagonal symmetry; Jefferson&#39;s design for the building reflects a consistent geometric approach likely made possible by his well-known proficiency in algebra, geometry, trigonometry and Newtonian calculus.</p><br>
<h2>Post-Jeffersonian Modifications and Preservation</h2><br>
<p>By different owners, the main house underwent many alterations, and the plantation&#39;s acreage was incrementally reduced to 50 acres (20 ha) at the time of acquisition by the Corporation for Jefferson’s Poplar Forest.</p><br>
<p>The Corporation for Jefferson&#39;s Poplar Forest is using early 19th century building materials including heavy timber fram construction, hemp sash cord, iron hardware from Colonial Williamsburg as well as 19th century building techniques in their restoration work including column rendering and burning limestone to produce traditional lime mortar and plaster.</p><br>
<h2>Slavery at Poplar Forest</h2><br>
<p>Slaves were present on the property from the 1766 through 1865, when slavery was formally abolished in the United States. Present-day knowledge of the slave populations and their contributions to Poplar Forest is based on both archaeological and archival evidence. John Wales used slave labor to originally develop roadwork on the property, and when Thomas and Martha Jefferson inherited the land that included Poplar Forest from Wales, they also inherited 135 enslaved men, women, and children as well as other tracts of land in Amherst, Cumberland, Charles City, Goochland, and Powhatan counties. Because Wayles chose to split his estate among several heirs, slave families were separated in order for his heirs to pay his debts.</p><br>
<p>As Jefferson turned more attention to Poplar Forest, he brought slaves from Monticello, Elk Hill, Indian Camp, and Judith&#39;s Creek, thus increasing the slave population at Poplar Forest. Jefferson kept consistent records of the slaves living at Poplar Forest; these records show that the slave population fluctuated between as few as 28 and as many as 95 individual slaves were working at Poplar Forest between the years 1774 and 1819. As an active participant in the slave trade, Jefferson sold and purchased slaves throughout the time he owned Poplar Forest, including a sale of 40 slaves from his various properties in Bedford County, VA in the 1790s. The Eppses inherited the house, about 1,075 acres of land, and several enslaved men and women after Jefferson’s death in 1825. The Cobbs and Hutter families also used slave labor on the property through emancipation, and maintained some former slaves as hired workers following.</p><br>
<h3>Plantation and Slave Economics</h3><br>
<p>Slave labor was vital to Poplar Forest’s economic success. Beginning in 1790, the slaves at Poplar Forest initially grew tobacco and livestock for profit, and later began growing wheat. Records from Edward Hutters tenure at Poplar Forest show that slaves were regularly tasked with tilling fields and digging ditches in addition to their work growing and harvesting plants to be sold at market. Slaves worked six days each week, and were also responsible for constructing and maintaining their housing structures. Scholars have determined that the enslaved community at Poplar Forest devised a commerce system amongst themselves; slaves were allowed a small plot of land with which to grow food and produce goods that could be traded or sold to fellow slaves as well as the owners families and the outside market. Archaeologists at Poplar Forest have uncovered clothing accessories such as buttons, glass beads, gilt chains, aiglet/lace tips, and fancy buckles that were likely used as currency amongst slaves at Poplar Forest and the surrounding plantations.</p><br>
<p>Documents from the 19th century show that the transition from tobacco-based to mixed-crop plantation agriculture left Poplar Forest with an abundance of laborers; William Cobbs in particular is known to have hired out slaves from the plantation to external projects. Other individual slaves (including two women named Lucy and Matilda) are known to have had access to money during this time so that they could buy items on behalf of the Cobbs/Hutter families. Edward Hutter regularly leased slaves from Poplar Forest to businesses and planters in Bedford County.</p><br>
<h3>Family Networks</h3><br>
<p>Records show that by the 1790s, there were seven different slave families represented at Poplar Forest. Jefferson encouraged common-law unions amongst the slaves, and recorded the birth dates of each slave born on the property. He also rewarded women who married a fellow slave from Poplar Forest with a pot; archaeologists have found remnants of these gifts in archaeological studies of the property. Jefferson kept records of family connections - surviving records have allowed scholars to conclude that multiple generations of single families were enslaved at Poplar Forest and had relatives strewn about other plantations in Virginia. William and Marian Cobbs inherited a slave family that included Mary and her daughters Lucy and Matilda (who are recorded to have worked as house servants) as well as other siblings and extended family members.</p><br>
<h3>Known Individual Slaves</h3><br>
<p>was not born at Poplar Forest, but served there from the time she was a teenager until ca.1821. She married and had a family with a fellow slave, was literate, and worked for a time as Jefferson&#39;s housekeeper.</p><br>
<p>was purchased by Jefferson when he was 30, and went on to oversee field laborers at Poplar Forest. He fathered six children with a fellow slave named Cate and fostered several others, and worked as a hogkeeper when he was older. Scholars are also able to trace his family members and their roles at Poplar Forest, which included Nace, Hannah, Nancy, Joan, James, and Phill.</p><br>
<p>was born at Poplar Forest to James Hubbard and his wife Cate. Phill briefly worked at Monticello before returning to Poplar Forest, where he married Hanah and had a son. He died at age 33, reportedly of poisoning.</p><br>
<p>was born at Poplar Forest and violently rebelled against slavery by attacking an overseer on more than one occasion. Jefferson sent him and three others to Louisiana, where William attempted to run away, but was caught and sold.</p><br>
<p>John Hemmings never lived at Poplar Forest, but documentary records show that he was responsible for much of the interior woodwork in the retreat house at Poplar Forest.</p><br>
<p>Lydia Johnson lived at Poplar Forest when Edward Hutter owned the property. She named one of her children Ida Reeder, after Hutter&#39;s niece; expense records show that he purchased a dress for her as a gift. Lydia continued to work for the family after Emancipation until she died in 1919.</p><br>
<p>Will appears in a ledger from 1772 noting that he purchased rum, buttons, thread, and cloth.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>There have been several archaeological digs at Poplar Forest. The 1993 accidental discovery of building remnants used by African American slaves when staff members were checking the ground for objects of historical significance before planting trees sparked scholarly interest in excavating the property. Iniitial digs revealed that the ground on the hillside east of the poplar grove had been farmed; this discovery led to the discovery of a small cellar of a structure dating to Jefferson&#39;s time at the property.</p><br>
<p>More recent excavations focused on an area believed to have held paper mulberry trees; Jefferson planted two rows in order to help create naturalistic wings to complement the Palladian style of his retreat house. Archaeologists at Poplar Forest found stains in the ground indicating areas in which trees were previously planted, and their goal is to analyze the levels of charcoal and pollen to determine which areas were most likely the original location(s) for the paper mulberry trees. Other ongoing and future excavation plans include the area surrounding an antebellum slave cabin as well as Jefferson’s ornamental plant nursery.</p><br>
<p>Slaves at Poplar Forest participated in an informal economy by trading and selling objects as well as hiring themselves out or being hired out for paid work. Archaeological excavations have revealed objects that offer scholars a more complete idea of the types of objects and work that were valued in this economy. Future excavations will be geared towards determining the landscape as it was when Jefferson designed and spent time at Poplar Forest so that the present-day museum can re-create Jefferson&#39;s vision for visitors.</p><br>
<h3>Slave Sites</h3><br>
<p>Archaeological excavations of Poplar Forest have yielded evidence suggesting that maps of Poplar Forest created in Jefferson&#39;s time were incomplete and did not illustrate the extent to which slaves were present. Current scholarship suggests that the enslaved men and women at Poplar Forest lived and worked at one of three sites, but it is possible that there were even more than are currently known.</p><br>
<h4>Old Plantation/North Hill Site</h4><br>
<p>The Old Plantation/North Hill is believed to have been established in the 1770s/1780s and was the site of the oldest slave farm structures at Poplar Forest dating from 1764, and maps suggest that the original structures included an overseer house, large barn, and slave housing built over the course of 40 years. Scholars also refer to this area as the Old Quarter, and it was located to the south and west of the main house.</p><br>
<h4>Wingos Quarter Site</h4><br>
<p>The Wingo quarter farm dates from 1790-1812 at Poplar Forest and was operational when Jefferson owned Poplar Forest; he gave the land on which it was located to Martha and Thomas Mann Randolph as a wedding present. Jefferson&#39;s surviving notes tell us that three carpenters were able to construct a slave cabin in three days and that the slaves most often lived next to their field or shop work sites. Documentary evidence suggests that the slave housing structures at Poplar Forest were made of logs and that each house had two rooms that each measured 12.5 x 15 feet; this is corroborated by archaeological evidence suggesting that the slave structures contained root cellars designed by the occupants, which were used to store clothing, tools, and iron hardware. Archaeologists used soil stains to discover storage pits, burned tree roots, and postoles; this analysis also yielded fragments of glass, ceramics, and iron which were discovered to have been parts of plates, bottles, and cooking pots. One other structure discovered is believed to have functioned as a smokehouse as well as a residence, while a third is believed to have been built later than the other two, and used primarily as housing. Soil analysis also suggests that there were fences in the slave quarters.</p><br>
<p>Excavations at this site also yielded a number of objects related to slave life at Poplar Forest. Archaeologists discovered iron saw files, gimlets, wedges, croze irons, and a hinge from a folding ruler; it is likely that these objects are from tools used by slaves either in their work assignments or in their personal space. Scissors, straight pins, and thimbles found at the site suggest that women sewed for both work and for their families. The excavations uncovered stoneware and earthenware that scholars believe to have been used to prepare food; enslaved men and women at Poplar Forest ate fruits and vegetables as well as beef, pork, venison, opossum, rabbit, chicken, turkey, and fish, and possibly had access to firearms with which to hunt animals.</p><br>
<h4>Site A</h4><br>
<p>This is the newest of the three sites; current scholarship indicates that it was built in the 1830s and was operational until emancipation. Scholars believe that the site was home to a slave cabin likely occupied between 1840-1860. Archaeologists have uncovered a 3 ft. pit that would have been located underneath the floor of the cabin, postholes, and remnants of a shone chimney. The excavation at Site A has yielded buttons, straight pins, needles, thimbles, and the bone cap of a needle case; this suggests that this site may have been the home of a seamstress.</p><br>
<h2>Present-Day</h2><br>
<p>The Corporation for Thomas Jeffersons Poplar Forest has been in charge of Poplar Forest since 1984, when the 501(c)(3) organization purchased 50 acres of land and the original buildings with the goal to preserve the estate for the educational benefit of the public. The Corporation currently operates Poplar Forest as a historic house museum and cites their mission as seeking to both preserve Thomas Jeffersons personal retreat and inspire visitors to explore Jefferson&#39;s legacy.</p><br>
<p>Poplar Forest first welcomed visitors in 1986, and presently conducts guided tours thematically dedicated to the main retreat house and the enslaved community in addition to its ongoing restoration and archaeological work. The property is a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>Lake Mweru Wantipa or Mweru-wa-Ntipa meaning "muddy lake"  is a lake and swamp system in the Northern Province of Zambia. It has been regarded in the past as something of mystery, displaying fluctuations in water level and salinity which were not entirely explained by variation in rainfall levels; it has been known to dry out almost completely. This is compounded by its remoteness and it not receiving the same attention from geographers and geologists as its larger and more accessible neighbours, Lake Tanganyika, 25 km east, and Lake Mweru, 40 km west, with which its name is sometimes confused.</p><br>
<p>Lake Mweru Wantipa is a rift valley lake lying in a branch of the East African Rift, running from the Luapula River to Lake Tanganyika. There are some hot springs characteristics of a rift valley to the east. Its water is muddy in appearance, at times appearing reddish and slightly oily. In the local dialect "wa ntipa" means "with mud", hence "Mweru Wantipa" distinguishes it from its bigger neighbour, Lake Mweru, which has clearer water.</p><br>
<h2>Sources and drainage</h2><br>
<p>Rivers and streams, none very large, flow into Lake Mweru Wantipa and its swamps from the Mporokoso plateau about 32 km south, and the hills to the north-east in DR Congo. It was thought to drain via its south-western swamps and a dambo called the Mofwe into the Kalungwishi River, which flows into Lake Mweru. However, at the junction of the Kalungwishi and the Mofwe, the elevation is 942 m but the surface of the lake is at only 932 m. It is evident that the Kalungwishi overflows in the rainy season into Mweru Wantipa, but perhaps not vice versa, though one report in 1931 after very heavy rains reported a flood from the Mofwe into the Kalungwishi. Most of the time, though, Mweru Wantipa has no outlet and forms an isolated river basin.</p><br>
<h2>Lake extent</h2><br>
<p>Around 2005, Lake Mweru Wantipa&#39;s main north-east to south-west axis was about 65 km long and it was about 20 km wide, but a narrow branch extends roughly 30 km east from the northern end, giving a surface area of about 1500 km². In the south-east at Kampinda, a peninsula divides off a swampy inlet containing the Chimbwe Pools and a lagoon called Lake Cheshi. However at various times in the recent past it has been reported to be not a lake but a swamp with hardly any open water surface, and even to be a plain of dried out mud (littered with fish scales and bones, and the skeletons of dead crocodiles and hippos). These variations in open water surface occur not just within a single dry and rainy season cycle, but over years or decades. For instance it was reported as being a lake in 1890, 1897, 1911, 1919 and 1938, but a swamp in 1892, 1900–11, 1912–19, and 1922; and as having dried out around 1916. Its greatest depth has been reported as 5 m, but at times may be less than 1 m deep over most of its surface.</p><br>
<p>The salinity also shows long term variation, it was reported as being freshwater in 1929 and 1939, but saline in 1949.</p><br>
<h2>Factors determining water level and salinity</h2><br>
<p>While rainfall is the main factor, this may not be the complete story. Blockage of the Mofwe and of the rivers draining into Mweru Wantipa by papyrus and the growth of rushes may be part of the answer. It may also be that the effects of dry years may be delayed for a few years by the release of groundwater from surrounding hills into dambos which flow into the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Natural resources and environmental pressures</h2><br>
<p>Lake Mweru Wantipas fishery has been productive in the past but has been depleted in recent years. The lake supports a large population of hippopotamus and crocodiles. Except for birds and waterfowl, the wildlife on land and in the marshes, once extensive, has been reduced despite the existence of the Mweru Wantipa National Park. The park lies mainly on the lakes western shore but covers the lake surface, much of the marshes and part of the southern shore. The lake is only a few kilometres from the DR Congo border on its northern side and wars and conflicts in that country have caused many thousands of refugees to enter the district at Kaputa, putting pressure on resources. Most of the refugees have been moved to camps in Kawambwa and Mporokoso districts before repatriation.</p><br>
<h2>Settlements and roads</h2><br>
<p>The main centre of population on the lake is the town of Kaputa, which also forms an administrative district of the Northern Province.</p><br>
<p>At one time the principal road serving the lake was the one from Mporokoso to its south-east shore where there was a ferry at Bulaya, but that has deteriorated and now the main highway is the one from Lake Mweru along the western and northern shores to Kaputa.</p><br>
<p>The Southwest Mountains of Virginia are a mountain range centered on Charlottesville, parallel to and geologically associated with the Blue Ridge Mountains, which lie about 30 miles  to the west. Some of the more prominent peaks include Carters Mountains, Fan Mountain, Brush Mountain, Peters Mountain, Walton&#39;s Mountain, and Hightop Mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Southwest Mountains are not particularly large. They are one of the easternmost ranges in Virginia (along with the geologically associated Bull Run Mountains and Catoctin Mountain) and the viewshed for the Blue Ridge Mountains through Nelson and Albemarle Counties.</p><br>
<p>The range bisects Nelson, Albemarle, and Orange counties. A portion of the Southwest Mountains in Albemarle County has been designated a Rural Historic District by the National Park Service, though none of the range is designated as state or national parkland. Mineral resources of soapstone and vermiculite continue to be mined here.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Southwest Mountains are underlain by a belt of Catoctin greenstone, which forms the eastern edge of the Blue Ridge anticlinorium. The Catoctin Greenstone belt extends north into Maryland and also supports the Bull Run and Catoctin Mountains. The basalt flows which were metamorphised to greenstone were deposited during the latest Precambrian age and first uplifted during Grenville Orogeny then again during the Alleghenian Orogeny, in which they were also transported westward to their present location.</p><br>
<h2>History and culture</h2><br>
<p>In its designation as a Virginia historical landmark, the Virginia Board of Historic Resources described the northern Albemarle portion of the Southwest Mountains as "some of the Piedmont&#39;s most pristine and scenic countryside." They went on:</p><br>
<p>Characterized by undulating pastures, winding roadways, forested hills, and small hamlets, the district contains a broad range of 18th-, 19th- and early 20th-century rural architecture, reflecting the evolving cultural patterns of more than 250 years of settlement.</p><br>
<p>The estates of Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and James Monroe are all located within the Southwest Mountains, as are many non-presidential estates, including Castle Hill.</p><br>
<p>These mountains were at one time also referred to as the "Chestnut Mountains". The plateaux of the Southwest Mountains in southern Albemarle were once referred to as the "Green Mountains."</p><br>
<p>Virginia Governor James Barbour, who lived in Orange County, wrote in 1835:</p><br>
<p>"Let us, the inhabitants of the South-West Mountains, rejoice and be grateful that our benefits greatly preponderate over our ills. And so far as my testimony goes, resulting from actual observation of near one-third of the entire circumference of the earth, I feel no hesitation in declaring that I deem them the most desirable abode I have ever seen."</p><br>
<p>Barbury Castle is an Iron Age hill fort situated in Wiltshire, England. It is one of several such forts found along the ancient Ridgeway route. The site, which lies within the Wessex Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, has been managed as a country park by Swindon Borough Council since 1971. It is situated on Barbury Hill, a local vantage point, which, under ideal weather conditions, commands a view across to the Cotswolds and the River Severn. It has two deep defensive ditches and ramparts. The Old Ridgeway runs close by and the modern Ridgeway crosses through the castle. In the surrounding area are to be found round barrows, Celtic field systems and 18th-19th Century flint workings.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The site was first occupied some 2500 years ago, and was then in use during the Roman occupation of the area. Archaeological investigations at Barbury have shown evidence of a number of buildings, indicating a village or military garrison at this time.</p><br>
<p>In the 6th century the site became part of the Saxon kingdom of Wessex, following the defeat of the Romano-British at the Battle of Beranburgh, Beran Byrig or Beranbyrig in AD 556, the site of which is just north of the castle. Centuries later the area was a favourite haunt of the 19th century writer Richard Jefferies, who lived an hour’s walk away at Coate.</p><br>
<p>In World War II the War Ministry appropriated the site for US Army Air Force anti-aircraft guns; the bases for these are apparently visible as hollows around the edge of the fort interior.</p><br>
<p>In 1996 a geophysical survey revealed traces of 40 hut circles inside the castle. A reconstruction of an Iron Age roundhouse was built on the site in 2006 but was destroyed by vandals in October 2008.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Barbury Castle is at, about 5 mi south of Swindon and the M4, on the northern edge of the Marlborough Downs within the North Wessex Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Other than a couple of nearby farms, there is no current settlement near the site.</p><br>
<p>By road the site can only approached by a single road ascending the scarp slope of the downs from midway along the B4005 between Wroughton and Chiseldon. More options are available by foot or horseback, including the Ridgeway, which runs east–west along the edge of the downs, and a byway south across the downs to Marlborough.</p><br>
<p>Nearby towns and cities: Swindon, Marlborough</p><br>
<p>Nearby villages: Wroughton, Chiseldon</p><br>
<p>The Bitterroot Range is a mountain range and a subrange of the Rocky Mountains that runs along the border of Montana and Idaho in the northwestern United States. The range spans an area of 24,223 square miles and is named after the bitterroot , a small pink flower that is the state flower of Montana.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1805, the Corps of Discovery, led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark and aided by Sacajawea of the Shoshone Native American tribe, crossed the Bitterroot Range several times. Lewis first crossed the mountains at Lemhi Pass on August 12, then returned across the pass to meet Clark. The entire expedition then crossed the pass to the Salmon River valley, and the next month entered the Bitterroot Valley from the south via either Lost Trail Pass or Chief Joseph Pass. It then crossed Lolo Pass to the west. The mountains were crossed by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad (the "Milwaukee Road").</p><br>
<h2>Ranges</h2><br>
<p>According to the USA Board on Geographic Names, the Bitterroot Range runs from Pend Oreille Lake (near Sandpoint, Idaho) to Monida Pass. It is sometimes considered to extend east of the Monida Pass to include the Centennial Mountains. The range comprises the following subranges (from north to south):</p><br>
<h3>Coeur d'Alène Mountains</h3><br>
<p>The Coeur dAlène Mountains are the northwestern-most portion of the Bitterroot Range and encompass an area of 2,590 square miles. The mountain ranges two highest peaks are the Cherry Peak and the Patricks Knob.</p><br>
<h3>Saint Joe Mountains</h3><br>
<p>The Saint Joe Mountains, the smallest named portion of the Bitterroot Range, encompass an area of. They lie between the St. Joe River on the south, the Coeur d&#39;Alene River on the north, the Slate Creek saddle on the east and the plateau of the Moscow, Idaho/Pullman, Washington area on the Idaho/Washington border.</p><br>
<h3>Bitterroot Mountains</h3><br>
<p>The Bitterroot Mountains, comprising the Northern and Central Bitterroot Ranges, are the largest portion of the Bitterroot Range and encompass an area of. The mountains are bordered on the north by Lolo Creek, on the south by the Salmon River, on the east by the Bitterroot River and Valley, and on the west by the Selway and Lochsa Rivers. Its highest summit is Trapper Peak, at.</p><br>
<h3>Beaverhead Mountains</h3><br>
<p>The Beaverhead Mountains encompass an area of. They lie to the east of the Bitterroot Mountains and lie to the west of the Big Hole Basin and the Pioneer Mountains. Passes in the mountains include Lemhi Pass, Bannock Pass, Big Hole Pass, Big Hole Pass II, Junction Pass and Monida Pass. The Beaverheads are further subdivided into the West Big Hole Mountains, the Big Hole Divide, the Tendoy Mountains, the Italian Peaks, and the Garfield Peaks.</p><br>
<h3>Centennial Mountains</h3><br>
<p>The Centennial Mountains encompass an area of.</p><br>
<p>The Centennials are home to Browers Spring, discovered in 1888 by Jacob V. Brower, which is believed to be the furthest point on the Missouri River. Brower published his finding in 1896 in "The Missouri: Its Utmost Source."</p><br>
<p>The site of Brower&#39;s Spring is at about in elevation in the Centennials. The site is now commemorated by a rock cairn at the source of Hellroaring Creek, which flows into Red Rock River and then into Clark canyon reservoir, where it joins the Beaverhead River and then the Big Hole River, before ultimately joining with the Jefferson River.</p><br>
<h3>Early History</h3><br>
<p>The Bitterroot Mountains presented an unexpected, formidable obstacle to Lewis and Clark during their expedition westward, and ended their expectation of finding a "Northwest Passage" giving an easy connection from the Atlantic watershed to that of the Pacific.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Bitterroot Range is featured in the 2004 alternate history novel, Dies the Fire, by S.M. Stirling.</p><br>
<p>The Daniels & Fisher Tower is a distinctive historic landmark located at 1101 16th Street in Denver, Colorado.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>Built as part of the Daniels & Fisher department store in 1910, it was the tallest between the Mississippi River and the state of California at the time of construction, at a height of 325 feet (99 m). The building was designed by the architect Frederick Sterner and modeled after The Campanile (St. Mark&#39;s Bell Tower) at the Piazza San Marco in Venice, Italy. The 20-floor clock tower has clock faces on all four sides. May Company purchased Daniels & Fisher in 1958, and the store vacated the tower. When the store was demolished (ca. 1971), the tower was saved and renovated into residential and office space in 1981. A 2½ ton bell occupies the top two floors of the building, above the observation deck.</p><br>
<p>The basement level of the tower has been home to Lannie&#39;s Clocktower Cabaret entertainment venue since 2006.</p><br>
<p>The tower was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 3, 1969.</p><br>
<p>Tus , also spelled as Tous, Toos or Tūs, is an ancient city in Razavi Khorasan Province in Iran near Mashhad. To the ancient Greeks, it was known as Susia . It was captured by Alexander the Great in 330 BCE. It was also known as Tusa.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Tus was taken by the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik and remained under Umayyad control until 747, when a subordinate of Abu Muslim Khorasani defeated the Umayyad governor during the Abbasid Revolution. In 809, the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid fell ill and died in Tus, on his way to solve the unrest in Khorasan. His grave is located in the region.</p><br>
<p>In 1220, Tus was sacked by the Mongol general, Subutai, and a year later Tolui would kill most of its populace, and destroying the tomb of Caliph Harun al-Rashid in the process. Decades later, Tus would be rebuilt under the governorship of Kuerguez.</p><br>
<p>The most famous person who has emerged from that area is the poet Ferdowsi, author of the Persian epic Shahnameh, whose mausoleum, built in 1934 in time for the millennium of his birth, dominates the town. Other notable residents of Tus include the theologian, jurist, philosopher and mystic al-Ghazali; early polymath Jābir ibn Hayyān; the poet Asadi Tusi; the powerful Seljuk vizier Nizam al-Mulk; the medieval polymath Nasir al-Din al-Tusi; and the prominent Twelver Shii Islamic scholar Abu Jafar Tusi.</p><br>
<p>The Maputo River , also called Great Usutu River, Lusutfu River, or Suthu River, is a river in South Africa, Swaziland, and Mozambique. The name Suthu refers to Basotho people who lived near the source of the river, but were attacked and displaced by Swazis. It is also said to mean dark brown, a description of the river&#39;s muddy water.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>The river rises near Amsterdam, Mpumalanga, South Africa, and flows easterly through Swaziland, where it enters the Lebombo Mountains. The 13 km gorge forms the boundary between Swaziland and South Africa. For approximately twenty kilometres, it forms the border between South Africa (province of KwaZulu-Natal) and Mozambique. There, in the Ndumo Game Reserve, it absorbs its largest tributary, the Pongola River. It then meanders through the Mozambican coastal plain and empties into southern Maputo Bay, some 85 kilometres downstream.</p><br>
<p>In Swaziland, the river is called the Great Usutu or Lusutfu and flows through the towns of Bhunya, Luyengo, Siphofaneni, and Big Bend. The town of Big Bend is near a point in which the river meanders abruptly. The Great Usutu is the largest river in Swaziland, is the site of Swaziland&#39;s lowest point (21 m above sea level), and is known for whitewater rafting. No large towns have been able to form along its banks because of deep narrow valleys and dense forests. It is, however, home to some golf courses, hotels, and nature reserves.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>From the origin to its mouth, in order, tributaries are the: Seganagana, Bonnie Brook, Mpuluzi, Buhlungu, Umvenvane, Lusushwana, Sidvokodvo, Mkhondvo, Mhlamani, Mzimneni, Mzimphofu, Mhlathuzane, Mtsindzekwa, Nyetane, Funuane, and the Pongola Rivers.</p><br>
<h2>Dams on this river</h2><br>
<p>Westoe Dam</p><br>
<p>Lubovane Dam</p><br>
<p>Tollymore Forest Park was the first state forest park in Northern Ireland, established on 2 June 1955. It is located at Bryansford, near the town of Newcastle in the Mourne and Slieve Croob Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. It covers an area of 630 hectare at the foot of the Mourne Mountains and has views of the surrounding mountains and the sea at nearby Newcastle. The Shimna River flows through the park where it is crossed by 16 bridges, the earliest dating to 1726. The river is a spawning ground for salmon and trout and is an Area of Special Scientific Interest due to its geology, flora and fauna.</p><br>
<p>The forest has four walking trails signposted by different coloured arrows, the longest being the "long haul trail" at 8 mi long. It was listed in The Sunday Times top twenty British picnic sites for 2000. The Forest Park has been managed by the Forest Service since they purchased it from the Roden Estate in 1941.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early history</h3><br>
<p>The name Tollymore (Tulaigh Mhór) is derived from "large hill or mound", referring to the two hills, approximately 250 m high, which are located within the forest boundary. Their official names have been recorded as Slieve Neir (possibly from Sliabh an Aoire, meaning "the mountain of the shepherd") and Slieve Snaran (from either snarvan, meaning to creep, or snarban, meaning a cataract). However, they are more commonly known as The Drinns and Curraghard, meaning "ridge" and "marshy upland" respectively.</p><br>
<p>After the Norman invasion of Ulster in 1177 and the creation of the Earldom of Ulster, the Magennis clan gained power in the area. The extended Magennis families controlled most of the land in the south of County Down by the 15th century, including the area where Tollymore is located. On 22 February 1611, Tollymore (officially referred to as Ballytollymore) was included in seven and a half townlands which were surrendered to the English crown in return for a formal freehold in the name of Brian McHugh McAghorley Magennis. The land was passed to his grandson in 1628 and when he died without issue in the 1660s, it was passed to Brian Magennis’ only daughter Ellen, who was married to William Hamilton of Ayrshire.</p><br>
<h3>Hamilton family</h3><br>
<p>William Hamilton was from Lecale, County Down and was a close relative of James Hamilton, 1st Viscount Claneboye, who acquired a large amount of land in County Down a number of years before the Plantation of Ulster. The land was passed to his son James upon his death in 1674.</p><br>
<p>Tollymore was one of the properties forfeit from the reversal of Cromwellian land settlement and the Act of Settlement 1662 by James II&#39;s Patriot Parliament in 1689. This was likely because James Hamilton had raised a regiment in support of William of Orange and was providing the Williamites with supplies. County Down was not involved in the subsequent war.</p><br>
<p>James Hamilton died in 1701 and Tollymore was passed to his son, James, who became Viscount Limerick in 1719 and 1st Earl of Clanbrassil (second creation) in 1756.</p><br>
<p>The Hamilton family remained owners of Tollymore until 1798. The great grandson of William Hamilton, James, died in 1798 without children and Tollymore was transferred to his sister Anne, who married Robert Jocelyn, 1st Earl of Roden. The Roden family continued in possession of Tollymore throughout the 19th century, and in 1930 Robert Jocelyn, 8th Earl of Roden sold part of the estate to the Ministry of Agriculture for afforestation purposes. The remainder was sold to the Ministry in 1941.</p><br>
<p>The seat of the Roden family in Tollymore demesne, known as Tollymore Park House or Bryansford House, was a Georgian mansion built initially by James Hamilton, 1st Earl of Clanbrassil around 1730, and was demolished in 1952.</p><br>
<p>During the 1800s, the forest contained five saw mills for processing felled trees. The mills were located on the banks of the Shimna River and powered by water. Millponds stored water, which during dry periods was released to turn the water wheels. The millponds are still located in the forest but are no longer in use.</p><br>
<p>Between 1994 and 2003, four flint artefacts were discovered in the park, close to the Shimna River. A flake, two blades and a concave scraper were found in two locations the forest. The flake, scraper and one of the blades were identified as prehistoric. The second blade was identified as Late Mesolithic or Early Neolithic. A fifth artefact, a Bronze Age barbed and tanged arrowhead, was found in a nearby field.</p><br>
<h2>Structures, follies and bridges</h2><br>
<p>Tollymore features many follies whose design were influenced by Thomas Wright of Durham, a friend of James Hamilton, 1st Earl of Clanbrassil. At the entrance and exit to the park there are Gothic gate arches built by James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Clanbrassil (Viscount Limerick). The gate and gate lodge at the exit were built in 1786 and, along with the front walling, are grade B1 listed structures. The barbican gate, also of Gothic design, is located on the main drive at the entrance to the park. It was built in 1780 and is a B+ listed building.</p><br>
<p>Clanbrassil barn, located near the exit to the park, was built in around 1757 by James Hamilton (1st Earl of Clanbrassil). The building was designed to look like a church. A steeple containing a bell, clock and sundial was added to the east end of the building in 1789. The barn, attached Gothic gate and wall are grade B1 listed buildings. The barn functioned as a stable and store until 1971. The ground floor now contains toilets and an education room.</p><br>
<p>A granite obelisk, located on a small grassy hill near the main drive, was built in between 1812 and 1820 by Robert Jocelyn, 2nd Earl of Roden as a monument to his son James Bligh Jocelyn who died of an asthma attack while serving in the navy.</p><br>
<p>There are numerous artificial and natural features along the Shimna River, including bridges, grottos and caves. The Hermitage is a small stone shelter designed by James Hamilton (2nd Earl of Clanbrassil) in the 1770s in memory to his friend the Marquis of Monthermer. It is built into the side of the gorge above the river and was used as a place for ladies to shelter while the men fished. There is an inscription in Greek within the Hermitage which translates as "Clanbrassil, to his very dear friend Monthermer 1770".</p><br>
<p>The Shimna river is crossed by 16 bridges as it flows through Tollymore. The Old Bridge, built by James Hamilton in 1726, is the oldest of the current bridges. The Ivy Bridge was built in 1780 and Foley’s Bridge in 1787. Parnell Bridge, named in recognition of Sir John Parnell who visited Tollymore in the late 18th century, was constructed in 1842. It was the last stone bridge to be built in Tollymore. The more recent footbridges are constructed from wood. Horn bridge crosses a small culverted stream and is crossed by a gravel road. The stream below the bridge is covered with a board walk connected to a path. It was built c.1770 by either the 1st or 2nd Earl.</p><br>
<p>The King&#39;s Grave is a megalithic cairn located in the western end of the park. It is 22 yards across and 10 ft high and dates to 1000 - 1500 BC.</p><br>
<p>The white fort is located in the west of the park, about halfway between Parnell’s bridge and Horne bridge. It is a large cashel measuring 44x54 m with 3 m thick walls. The walls are approximately 2 m high but were likely more than double that when it was in use during the first millennium AD.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, the Mourne Heritage Trust carried out restoration work on 15 structures within the park including the granite monument, both gates, the hermitage, Foley&#39;s Bridge, Horn Bridge and the Old Bridge.</p><br>
<h2>Zoology</h2><br>
<p>Tollymore contains a population of approximately 120-150 wild Fallow deer, which have been in the park since the 1970s. The forest service carry out a cull of the deer once a year, to keep the population from becoming too large.</p><br>
<p>Red squirrels were first recorded in the park in 1880, although they are likely to have been present before then. A decline in numbers was noticed in 2004. A rise in grey squirrel numbers, first seen in the park approximately 10 years previously, was noted at the same time. Since then The Tollymore Red Squirrel Group, consisting of volunteers, forest service staff and members of the Mourne Heritage Trust, have been working to preserve the species within the forest by providing additional food and attempting to reduce the numbers of grey squirrels. In 2011 approximately 90% of the park’s red squirrel population were killed by squirrel pox, passed on by the grey squirrels. The following year there were only an estimated 10 to 15 red squirrels remaining. However, numbers were starting to rise again. Although an approximately 50% increase in red squirrel sightings was reported during the later part of 2013, exact numbers are not known as the Tollymore Red Squirrel Group were unable to carry out their annual survey in October 2013.</p><br>
<p>In 2007 a breeding pair of great spotted woodpeckers, which had not bred in Ireland for centuries, were recorded in Tollymore for the first time. Another breeding pair, along with juveniles, were spotted in the park in 2009 and 2010. Evidence of nesting in previous years has also been observed. Kingfishers and dippers can also be seen in the park, close to the river.</p><br>
<p>Pine martens, which are one of the rarest native mammal species in Ireland, are frequently spotted in the park by volunteers monitoring the squirrels. Badgers, foxes and otters are also present in the forest</p><br>
<h2>Botany</h2><br>
<p>The arboretum in Tollymore was started in 1752 and is one of the oldest in Ireland. It contains trees from many different parts of the world, including the remains of a giant redwood which was struck by lightning.</p><br>
<p>The slightly milder climate in the area, due to its proximity to the coast, provided more favourable growing conditions than further inland for the more exotic trees in the arboretum.</p><br>
<p>The most common trees in the park are ash (Fraxinus excelsior), beech (Fagus sylvatica), birch and Oak (including Quercus robur and Quercus ilex). Larch, Sitka spruce and willow are also found in reasonable quantities. Other trees present include field maple (Acer campestre), Himalayan cedars (Cedrus deodara), coast Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) and yew (Taxus baccata).</p><br>
<p>There are also experimental plots of exotic trees such as monkey puzzle, eucalyptus, giant redwoods and Monterey pines.</p><br>
<p>The slow growing spruce Picea abies Clanbrassiliana originated near the park in 1750. The original tree of this species is the oldest tree found in any arboretum in Ireland. Wood from the oak trees in Tollymore was uses by Harland and Wolff for the interiors of the White Star liners, including the RMS Titanic.</p><br>
<p>In 2011 there was an outbreak of the tree disease Phytophthora lateralis, affecting approximately 800 Lawson cypress trees over a two hector area. Felling of infected trees was carried out to prevent further spread.</p><br>
<p>Shrub species found in the park include Rhododendron, elderberry, blackberry, laurel and ivy. Lawn areas contain bent (various Agrostis species) buttercups, clover, dandelions, meadow grass and perennial reygrass (Lolium perenne). In 2012, 50 hectors of the invasive Rhododendron ponticum was removed from forests in the Mourne area, including Tollymore. The project was carried out to improve the quality of the woodland and prevent the spread of Phytophthora ramorum, which the species in know to host.</p><br>
<p>Algae (Nitella flexilis) and ferns (Hymenophyllum wilsonii, Phegopteris connectilis, Polystichum aculeatum and Dryopteris aemula) are also common.</p><br>
<p>Other plant species include:</p><br>
<p>Acaena ovalifolia, an invasive Acaena species which is now illegal to plant in the wild in Northern Ireland.</p><br>
<p>Acaena novae-zelandiae, an invasive plant native to Australia and New Zealand.</p><br>
<p>Prunus padus, also known as Bird Cherry.</p><br>
<p>Rosa arvensis, also known as the Field Rose or Trailing Rose.</p><br>
<p>Circaea × intermedia, a hybrid of Circaea alpina and Circaea lutetiana</p><br>
<p>Pyrola minor, a flowering plant also known as snowline, lesser or common wintergreen.</p><br>
<p>Scrophularia auriculata, a perennial plant found near the edges of rivers or ponds.</p><br>
<p>Mimulus moschatus, a flowing plant native to western North America</p><br>
<p>Melampyrum pratense, a herbaceous plant also known as common cow-wheat.</p><br>
<p>Lathraea squamaria, also known as common toothwort</p><br>
<p>Pinguicula lusitanica, also known as pale butterwort</p><br>
<p>Mentha gentilis, a hybrid mint plant.</p><br>
<p>Sambucus ebulus, a herbaceous species of elder.</p><br>
<p>Erigeron karvinskianus, wildflower native to South America and Mexico.</p><br>
<p>A number of species of hawkweed (Hieracium senescens, Hieracium argenteum, Hieracium duriceps, Hieracium grandidens, Hieracium stewartii)</p><br>
<p>Neottia nidus-avis, also known as Bird&#39;s-nest orchid</p><br>
<p>A number of species of sedge (Carex laevigata, Carex pallescens, Carex pilulifera)</p><br>
<p>Festuca altissima, a species of grass belonging to the Festuca genus.</p><br>
<p>Melica uniflora, a species of grass also known as wood melick.</p><br>
<p>Milium effusum, a species of grass also known as American milletgrass or Wood millet.</p><br>
<h2>Uses</h2><br>
<h3>Recreation</h3><br>
<p>The park has designated areas for camping and caravans.</p><br>
<p>There are four official walking trails within the forest each marked with different coloured sign posts. All the trails start and end in the main car park. The blue tail (Arboretum Path) is half a mile long and passes through the arboretum. The red tail (River Trail) is three miles long and follows the Shimna River up one side as far as Parnell’s bridge and then back along the other side. The black trail (Mountain Trail) is five and half miles long and the black trail 1 (The Drinns Trail) adds another three miles to the black trail by passing behind The Drinns (two forested hills) and following the boundary wall. The Ulster Way also passes through the forest.</p><br>
<h3>Filming</h3><br>
<p>The forest has been used as a filming location for the TV series Game of Thrones and the film Dracula Untold.</p><br>
<h2>Publications</h2><br>
<p>In 2005 the 10th Earl of Roden published a history of Tollymore, his family&#39;s estate, entitled Tollymore: The History of an Irish Demesne.</p><br>
<p>The Quabbin Reservoir is the largest inland body of water in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and was built between 1930 and 1939. Today along with the Wachusett Reservoir, it is the primary water supply for Boston, some 65 mi to the east, as well as 40 other communities in Greater Boston. It also supplies water to three towns west of the reservoir and acts as backup supply for three others. It has an aggregate capacity of 412 e9USgal and an area of 38.6 square miles .</p><br>
<h2>Structures and water flow</h2><br>
<p>Quabbin Reservoir water flows to the Wachusett Reservoir using the Quabbin Aqueduct. The Quabbin watershed is managed by the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation, while the water supply system is operated by the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority. The Winsor Dam and the Goodnough Dike form the reservoir from impoundments of the three branches of the Swift River. The Quabbin Reservoir is part of the Chicopee River Watershed, which in turn feeds the Connecticut River.</p><br>
<p>The Quabbin Spillway (which follows part of Quabbin Hill Road in Belchertown), allows water to bypass the Winsor Dam and join the Swift River when the reservoir is full.</p><br>
<p>In 1947, the Massachusetts Legislature authorized the construction of the Chicopee Valley Aqueduct to deliver Quabbin water to three communities in Western Massachusetts: Chicopee, South Hadley, and Wilbraham. In 1951, with the Quabbin-Wachusett system sufficient to meet foreseeable needs, the Cochituate Aqueduct was abandoned, and the Framingham Reservoir system was placed on emergency stand-by. The present Lake Cochituate is the so-called Framingham Reservoir and now serves as a major swimming and boating resource but is no longer part of the potable water supply.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Demand for water exceeds local supplies</h3><br>
<p>Metropolitan Boston&#39;s demands for fresh water began to outstrip its local supplies in the early part of the nineteenth century. Many possible sources of water were explored, including groundwater and rivers, but none were considered adequate in quantity and cleanliness to meet the needs of the rapidly growing city. After several years of controversy, the Massachusetts General Court (the official name of the state legislature) authorized the construction of the Cochituate Aqueduct to bring water to Boston from Lake Cochituate in Wayland and Natick.</p><br>
<p>This established three important policies, which remain in force today:</p><br>
<p>Public, rather than private, ownership of the public water supply system.</p><br>
<p>Use of upland reservoirs, with gravity-fed rather than pumped supply systems.</p><br>
<p>Watershed protection, rather than filtration, as the primary mechanism of ensuring wholesome supplies.</p><br>
<p>By 1875, with demand again on the verge of exceeding supply, the Boston Water Board was established to take over the operations of the Cochituate Water Board, construct five new reservoirs on the Sudbury River in Framingham, Massachusetts, and a new Sudbury Aqueduct to deliver that water to the city.</p><br>
<h3>Recommendation for establishment and related construction</h3><br>
<p>In 1895, the Massachusetts Board of Health issued a report analyzing population and water-use trends, and recommended the creation of a Metropolitan Water District, serving several suburban communities in addition to Boston, and the construction of two new reservoirs: one on the Nashua River northeast of Worcester, and one in the Swift River Valley.</p><br>
<p>The General Court acted to establish the Metropolitan Water District, including 26 communities within ten miles (16 km) of the Massachusetts State House, later in 1895. The Wachusett Reservoir was completed in 1908. The Board of Health study had anticipated that Swift River water would be required by 1915, but this prediction had proven overly pessimistic. The introduction of mandatory water metering in Water District communities, and other efforts to reduce waste and inefficient uses, made it possible to delay construction of new water sources until the 1930s.</p><br>
<p>Frank E. Winsor was chief engineer for the Metropolitan Water District from 1926 until his death in 1939. He was closely involved in the design and construction of Winsor Dam, Goodnough Dike and the Quabbin Reservoir. Winsor Dam is named for him. He had previously been chief engineer for the building of the Scituate Reservoir in Rhode Island.</p><br>
<p>A 1922 study officially endorsed the Swift River Valley as the next extension of the water system and created the Metropolitan District Commission (MDC), now the Massachusetts Water Resource Authority (MWRA), to oversee the construction and maintain the system after its completion. In 1926, construction began on the first stage of the project, a tunnel connecting Wachusett Reservoir with the Ware River. This is called the Ware River Diversion. During the 1930s, this tunnel was extended to the Swift River. The complete tunnel is now known as the Quabbin Aqueduct.</p><br>
<h3>Opposition</h3><br>
<p>Although the project was enthusiastically supported by lawmakers in the Boston area, it was opposed by residents of the affected towns. The state of Connecticut sued Massachusetts, claiming waters that were rightfully meant to flow into the Connecticut River, and subsequently through their state, were being illegally diverted. The lawsuit was unsuccessful, but Massachusetts was still bound by discharge minimums set under the regulatory authority of the Secretary of War over navigable waters.</p><br>
<h3>Reservoir formed</h3><br>
<p>Before the reservoir’s construction, there was a hill in Enfield called Quabbin Hill and a lake in Greenwich called Quabbin Lake. Named for a Native American chief called Nani-Quaben, meaning "place of many waters", these became the basis for naming the new reservoir. The Quabbin was formed by inundating the Swift River Valley, a drainage basin lying entirely within the state, by damming the river and a col, through which Beaver Brook would have otherwise provided another outlet for its water. When construction on the dam began in the mid-1930s, the Swift River was redirected from its riverbed through a diversion tunnel. On August 14, 1939, that tunnel was sealed with rock. Over the next seven years, the waters of the Quabbin Reservoir slowly rose behind the newly completed Winsor Dam, an earth-filled structure 2,640 ft long, rising 170 ft above the riverbed, and the slightly smaller Goodnough Dike. The water gradually submerged the roads that had linked the towns. It swallowed all but the peaks of about 60 hills and mountains, transforming Prescott Ridge into Prescott Peninsula. The Quabbin Reservoir was full, for the first time, in June 1946.</p><br>
<p>During the time in which the reservoir was forming, the eventual bed of the reservoir was used as the Quabbin Reservoir Precision Bombing and Gunnery Range. The range was used by planes from both Hanscom Army Air Field and Westover Army Air Field.</p><br>
<h3>Towns disincorporated</h3><br>
<p>The Quabbins creation required the flooding, and thus the disincorporation, in April 1938, of four towns: Dana (located in Worcester County), Enfield, Greenwich, and Prescott (all located in Hampshire County). The land remaining from the disincorporated towns was added to surrounding municipalities, including Belchertown, Pelham, New Salem, Petersham, Hardwick and Ware. One additional town on the reservoir is Shutesbury, in Franklin County. Because of New Salems annexation of the Prescott Peninsula, a large wedge of land shifted from Hampshire County to Franklin County. Today, the majority of the reservoir lies in either New Salem or Petersham.</p><br>
<p>In addition, thirty-six miles of the Boston and Albany Railroad&#39;s Athol Branch, the so-called "Rabbit Line", were abandoned (originally the Springfield, Athol and Northeastern Railroad). Route 21, formerly reaching Athol, was truncated to the south side of the reservoir, and new roads—now US 202 and Route 32A—were built, respectively, on the western and eastern side of the reservoir. The designation of Route 109 was removed in 1933 from the road once running from Pittsfield to West Brookfield and leading into Enfield Centre from the southeast; and a different road southwest of Boston received that designation.</p><br>
<p>The buildings in the towns flooded by the reservoir were removed. Some cellar holes were left intact while others, chiefly in Prescott and below the flow line, were filled in. Old roads that once led to the flooded towns can be followed to the waters edge. Not all elements of the towns were destroyed, however. Town memorials and cemeteries in the four towns were moved to Quabbin Park Cemetery, located on Route 9 in Ware, just off the Quabbins lands. Many other public buildings were moved intact to other locations. For example, the Prescott First Congregational Church was moved to South Hadley. The North Prescott Methodist Episcopal Church was moved to Orange in 1949, and then to New Salem in 1985 where it forms part of the building complex of the Swift River Valley Historical Society. The former Town Hall of Prescott now sites off of Route 32 in Petersham.</p><br>
<p>Three student housing facilities at Hampshire College in Amherst are named after the discontinued towns of Greenwich, Prescott, and Enfield. In addition, Hampshire College named another facility on its campus Dana House, after the other discontinued town of Dana.</p><br>
<p>Four residence halls at the nearby Eagle Hill School are also named for the four towns Greenwich, Prescott, Dana, and Enfield.</p><br>
<h2>Watershed public access and recreation</h2><br>
<p>In order to protect the water supply from the threats from unrestricted motorized vehicle use, most areas around the reservoir are publicly accessible only by foot, with limited parking available at some of the surrounding gates.</p><br>
<p>Large portions of Dana are on higher ground, and its remains, predominantly cellar holes, as well as the former town center (where a historic stone marker was placed) can be visited.</p><br>
<p>Much of Prescott is above water on what is now known as the Prescott Peninsula. However, Prescott cannot be visited most of the year due to state restrictions, although there is an annual tour of the town conducted by the Swift River Valley Historical Society. A few houses and roads exist which were once part of North Prescott (now New Salem), and there is a town line marker just north of the gates, indicating the former town line for Prescott. Cellar holes have been filled near the center of what was once Prescott to accommodate the former Five College Radio Astronomy Observatory, once operated by the University of Massachusetts Amherst.</p><br>
<p>There is a visitor center south of the reservoir, as well as an observation tower, and Enfield Lookout. This area -- called Quabbin Park -- is accessible by car from the south using State Route 9. The Park is a popular spot for hiking and other outdoor activities. This area was formerly part of the town of Enfield, which was annexed by Belchertown</p><br>
<p>Fishing is allowed in designated areas in the northern portions of the reservoir. Three boat launch areas are available, and to prevent spread of aquatic invasive species private boats must be cleaned before being permitted on the Reservoir. DCR provides a number of rental boats as well.</p><br>
<p>More complete information regarding access rules and maps of Quabbin can be found</p><br>
<h3>Natural Resources and Forest Management</h3><br>
<p>This large block of forested land supports a great diversity of wildlife, and has been the focus for the re-establishment of several species in Massachusetts. Bald eagles, loons, moose, deer, coyotes, black bears, foxes, and bobcats share the habitat, among others.</p><br>
<p>provides general information regarding the application of forest management at Quabbin and other drinking water supply watersheds.</p><br>
<h2>Popular culture</h2><br>
<p>H.P. Lovecraft&#39;s story "The Colour Out of Space" is set in the valley before it was flooded for the reservoir.</p><br>
<p>William Weld&#39;s novel Stillwater is set in the valley while the reservoir is under construction.</p><br>
<p>Both the film Dreamcatcher and the Stephen King novel upon which it was based have scenes set at the Quabbin Reservoir.</p><br>
<p>Rick Ledford&#39;s "Swift River Lullaby" is the opening song on the 1991 Pat & Tex LaMountain album, Songs of Western Massachusetts.</p><br>
<p>The Wicklow Mountains  form the largest continuous upland area in Ireland. They occupy the whole centre of County Wicklow and stretch outside its borders into Counties Dublin, Wexford and Carlow. Where the mountains extend into County Dublin, they are known locally as the Dublin Mountains. The highest peak is Lugnaquilla at 925 m.</p><br>
<p>The mountains are primarily composed of granite surrounded by an envelope of mica-schist and much older rocks such as quartzite. They were pushed up during the Caledonian orogeny at the start of the Devonian period and form part of the Leinster Chain, the largest continuous area of granite in Ireland and Britain. The mountains owe much of their present topography to the effects of the last ice age, which deepened the valleys and created corrie and ribbon lakes. Copper and lead have been the main metals mined in the mountains and a brief gold rush occurred in the 18th century.</p><br>
<p>Several major river systems have their source in the mountains, such as the Liffey, Dargle, Slaney and Avoca rivers. Powerscourt Waterfall is the tallest in Ireland at 121 m. A number of these rivers have been harnessed to create reservoirs for drinking water for Dublin and its surroundings.</p><br>
<p>The Wicklow Mountains experience a temperate oceanic climate with mild, damp summers and cool, wet winters. The dominant habitat of the uplands consists of blanket bog, heath and upland grassland. The uplands support a number of bird species, including merlin and peregrine falcon. The valleys are a mixture of coniferous and deciduous woodland.</p><br>
<p>The mountains have been inhabited since Neolithic times and a number of typical monuments, in particular a series of passage tombs, survive to the present day. The monastery at Glendalough, founded in the late 6th century by Saint Kevin, was an important centre of the Early Church in Ireland. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, the Wicklow Mountains became a stronghold and hiding place for Irish clans opposed to English rule. The OByrne and OToole families carried out a campaign of harassment against the settlers for almost five centuries. Later the mountains harboured rebels during the 1798 Rising. Rebel activity died out after the construction of the Wicklow Military Road at the start of the 19th century and the mountains began to attract tourists to the ruins at Glendalough and to admire the mountain scenery.</p><br>
<p>The Wicklow Mountains continue to be a major attraction for tourism and recreation. The entire upland area is designated as a Special Area of Conservation and as a Special Protection Area under European Union law. The Wicklow Mountains National Park was established in 1991 to conserve the local biodiversity and landscape.</p><br>
<h2>Toponymy</h2><br>
<p>The Wicklow Mountains take their name from County Wicklow which in turn takes its name from Wicklow town. The origin of the name is from the Danish Wykynglo or Wykinlo. The Irish name for Wicklow, Cill Mhantáin, means "Church of Mantan", named after an apostle of Saint Patrick. Wicklow was not established as a county until 1606; prior to that it had been part of County Dublin. An early name for the whole area of the Wicklow Mountains was Cualu. There are also historic names for various territories in the mountains held by local clans: the north part of Wicklow and south Dublin was known as Cualann while the Glen of Imaal takes its name from the territory of Hy Mail. A sept of the O&#39;Byrne family called the Gaval Rannall possessed the area around Glenmalure, known as Gaval-Rannall or Ranelagh. During the medieval period, prior to the establishment of County Wicklow, the English administration in Dublin referred to the region as the Leinster Mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The Wicklow Mountains are the largest area of continuous high ground in Ireland, having an unbroken area of over 500 km&sup2; above 300 m. They occupy the centre of County Wicklow and extend into Counties Dublin, Carlow and Wexford. The general direction of the mountain ranges is from north-east to south-west. They are formed into several distinct groups: that of Kippure in the north, on the boundary of Dublin and Wicklow; Djouce, Tonelagee, Camaderry and Lugnaquilla in the centre; Church Mountain and Keadeen in the west; and Croghan Kinsella to the south. To the east, separated from the rest of the range by the Vartry Plateau, is the group comprising the Great Sugar Loaf, Little Sugar Loaf and Bray Head.</p><br>
<p>Lugnaquilla is the highest peak in the Wicklow Mountains at 925 m and the 13th highest in Ireland. It is also the highest peak in Leinster and is the only Irish Munro to be found outside of Munster. Kippure stands at 757 m. There are a total of 39 peaks over 600 m in the Wicklow Mountains. There are only three passes through the mountains under 600 m with the Sally Gap (1,634 ft) and the Wicklow Gap (1,567 ft) being the highest road passes in the country.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Wicklow Mountains are primarily composed of granite surrounded by an envelope of mica-schist and much older rocks such as quartzite. The oldest rocks are the quartzites of the Bray Group that include Bray Head and the Little Sugar Loaf and Great Sugar Loaf mountains. These metamorphosed from sandstone deposited in the deep waters of the primeval Iapetus Ocean during the Cambrian period (542-488 million years ago). Layers of sediment continued to form slates and shales along the ocean floor mixed with volcanic rock pushed up as Iapetus began to shrink by the process of subduction during the Ordovician period (488-443 million years ago). These rocks now underlie the uplifted peneplain of the Vartry Plateau between the Bray Group and the main range.</p><br>
<p>Iapetus closed up completely at the end of the Silurian period (443-415 million years ago) and the Wicklow Mountains were uplifted during the main phase of the Caledonian orogeny at the start of the Devonian period (415-358 million years ago) when the continents of Baltica and Laurentia collided. The collision pushed up a large batholith of granite, known as the Leinster Chain: this is the largest continuous area of granite in Ireland and Britain and runs from the coast at Dún Laoghaire in County Dublin to New Ross in County Wexford and includes the Wicklow and Blackstairs Mountains. The heat generated by the collision metamorphosed the slates and shales surrounding the granite into schists which formed an aureole (shell) around the granite. The process of erosion has removed much of the surrounding schist from the mountain tops, exposing the underlying granite. Some remnants of the schist roof remain on some of the mountain tops, most notably Lugnaquilla. The round granite topped peaks contrast with the sharper schist peaks: for example, War Hill (granite) and Djouce (schist).</p><br>
<p>The last major geological event to shape the Wicklow Mountains was the Quaternary glaciation during the Pleistocene epoch (2.6 million to 11,700 years ago). The ice deepened and moulded the valleys into the U-shape that characterises the Wicklow Glens, such as Glendalough and Glenmacnass. As the ice melted, small glaciers were left in corries where moraines now dam lakes such as at Loughs Bray and Nahanagan. Corries without lakes also occur, such as the North Prison and South Prison of Lugnaquilla. Escaping meltwater cut narrow rocky gorges at several locations including the Glen of the Downs, the Devil&#39;s Glen and The Scalp. Ribbon lakes, such as Lough Dan and the lakes of Glendalough, also formed.</p><br>
<h3>Mining and quarrying</h3><br>
<p>The zone of collision between the continental plates that led to the formation of the Wicklow Mountains also led to mineralisation and the formation of Ireland&#39;s most significant metalliferous belt. The most important mining sites have been at Avoca and Glendalough. Mining has taken place at Avoca since at least the Bronze Age (c. 2,500–600 BCE). Iron ore extraction took place between the 12th and 17th centuries before being replaced by lead mining up to the mid 18th century. The principal activity from 1720 to the closure of the last mine in 1982 was copper extraction. Sulphur has also been extracted at certain times and, in smaller quantities, gold, silver and zinc. Lead mining has been the principal activity in the Glendalough valley and its neighbouring valleys of Glendasan and Glenmalure. Lead was first discovered in Glendasan in the early 19th century and the lead veins were later followed through Camaderry mountain to Glendalough. Mining on a smaller scale took place in Glenmalure. Ore from these mines was shipped to Ballycorus for processing. The last mine closed in 1957.</p><br>
<p>In 1795, a local schoolmaster discovered gold in the Aughatinavought River, a tributary of the River Aughrim since renamed Gold Mines River that rises on the slopes of Croghan Kinsella mountain. During the subsequent gold rush, some 80 kg of gold was recovered from the river by local prospectors, including a single nugget weighing 682 g, the largest lump of gold ever discovered in Ireland and Britain. The mine workings were subsequently seized by the British government who extracted a further 300 kg of gold. Various attempts have been made to locate the motherlode on Croghan Kinsella but to no avail.</p><br>
<p>Granite from the Wicklow Mountains has been used as a material for many buildings in Wicklow and Dublin and beyond. The quarries at Ballyknockan have provided material for buildings such as the Bank of Ireland on College Green in Dublin, Dún Laoghaire lighthouse and Liverpool Cathedral. Similarly, quarries at Glencullen provided stone for such buildings as the G. P. O. on O&#39;Connell Street and the Industry and Commerce building on Kildare Street in Dublin. Barnacullia, on the slopes of Three Rock Mountain, supplied paving stones to Dublin Corporation. The quarry at Dalkey supplied granite for Dún Laoghaire Harbour and the Thames Embankment.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrology</h2><br>
<p>The Wicklow Mountains are the source of several major river systems. Since the thin blanket bog peats cannot hold great quantities of water, many of these rivers exhibit a flashy hydrography, filling rapidly after heavy rain.</p><br>
<p>The River Liffey rises between the mountains of Kippure and Tonduff at Liffey Head Bog. One of the major tributaries of the Liffey, the River Dodder, rises nearby on slopes on Kippure. The King&#39;s River rises on Mullaghcleevaun and joins the Liffey near Blessington.</p><br>
<p>The River Vartry rises on the slopes of Djouce mountain. Nearby, the River Dargle rises between Tonduff and War Hill, falling as the Powerscourt Waterfall, Ireland&#39;s tallest waterfall at 121 m, over a cliff formed by a glacier at the contact point between the granite and mica-schist of the Wicklow Mountains. The waterfalls at the heads of the valleys of Glendalough, Glenmacnass and Glendasan also occur approximately at the schist-granite junctions, as does the Carrawaystick waterfall in Glenmalure.</p><br>
<p>The River Slaney rises in the North Prison of Lugnaquilla mountain and winds through the Glen of Imaal where it is joined by the Leoh, Knickeen and Little Slaney. Another of its tributaries, the River Derreen, rises on Lugnaquilla&#39;s southern side.</p><br>
<p>Each of the main branches of the River Avoca – the Avonmore, the Avonbeg and the Aughrim rivers – have their origins in smaller tributaries, many of which rise in the Wicklow Mountains. The Glenealo, Glendasan and Annamoe rivers meet to form the Avonmore near Laragh. The Annamoe rises near Sally Gap and is joined by Cloghoge Brook between Lough Tay and Lough Dan and by the River Inchavore in Lough Dan. The Avonbeg rises on Table Mountain and the Three Lakes. The Avonmore and Avonbeg rivers join to form the River Avoca at the Meeting of the Waters in the Vale of Avoca, celebrated in the song The Meeting of the Waters by Thomas Moore. The Avoca is joined by the River Aughrim at Woodenbridge, sometimes referred to as the "Second Meeting of the Waters". The Aughrim is formed at the junction of the Derry Water and the River Ow, the latter of which rises on Lugnaquilla.</p><br>
<h3>Reservoirs</h3><br>
<p>Several of these rivers have been dammed to create reservoirs to provide drinking water for the residents of Dublin and its environs. The first of these was the River Vartry, dammed to create the Vartry Reservoir near Roundwood in the 1860s. A second dam was added in 1924 to increase capacity. The River Dodder feeds the two Bohernabreena reservoirs in the northern foothills of the Wicklow Mountains at Glenasmole in County Dublin, which were constructed between 1883 and 1887 to supply water to the townland of Rathmines. The Poulaphouca Reservoir, on the River Liffey near Blessington, was constructed between 1938 and 1940. There are also two hydroelectricity plants at Poulaphouca, constructed during the 1940s. A pumped storage hydroelectricity plant was constructed at Turlough Hill between 1968 and 1974. Water is pumped up from Lough Nanahangan, a natural corrie lake, into an artificial reservoir on Tomaneena mountain and released at times of peak electricity demand.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>In common with the rest of Ireland, the Wicklow Mountains experience a temperate oceanic climate with mild, damp summers and cool, wet winters. Annual rainfall reaches 2,000 mm on the highest mountains with the more westerly peaks getting the most rainfall (for example, Djouce mountain, in the east, receives c. 1,630 mm whereas Duff Hill, in the west, receives c. 1,950 mm a year). June and July are generally the driest months and there is an average of four hours of sunshine a day over the entire year. Snow cover in winter can reach an average of 50 days a year on the highest peaks. Strong winds are an important factor in peat erosion on the summits.</p><br>
<h2>Habitat</h2><br>
<p>The primary habitat of the uplands consists of heath and bog. The mountain blanket bogs formed around 4,000 years ago as a result of a combination of climate change and human activity. Prior to this, the mountains were cloaked with pine forest. A change in the climate to wetter and milder weather left the ground waterlogged and leached nutrients from the soil, leading to the formation of peat. Mountain blanket bog is found in areas above 200 m in altitude and where there are more than 175 days rainfall a year.</p><br>
<p>Due to drainage of water from the bogs as a result of human activity, most of Wicklow&#39;s peat has dried out too much for Sphagnum mosses to grow and moorland and heath vegetation has taken over. Active peat building is still occurring at some sites, most notably the Liffey Head Bog. Common heather (or ling) and bell heather are the most common moorland plants along with bilberry (or fraughan, as it is known in Ireland), bog cotton, deergrass and purple moor grass. Bird species found on the Wicklow moorland include red grouse, meadow pipit and skylark. Birds of prey found in the uplands include kestrels, hen harriers, merlins and peregrine falcons. The latter of these are protected species. The uplands are used for sheep grazing and so the moorland is periodically burned to keep the growth of heather in check and encourage growth of grasses.</p><br>
<p>Red deer, once native to Wicklow but hunted to extinction, were reintroduced on the Powerscourt Estate in the 18th century. Japanese sika deer were also imported by the Powerscourt Estate and have interbred with the red deer. All deer found in the Wicklow Mountains are descended from the Powerscourt herd and are either sika deer or hybrid red-sika deer. Other mammals occurring include feral goats, mountain hares, badgers, stoats, otters, red squirrels, grey squirrels and bats. The Irish Elk is an extinct species of deer that lived in the Wicklow Mountains c. 11,000 years ago, remains of which were discovered in great quantities in Ballybetagh Bog near Glencullen. Wolves were also once native to the mountains but were hunted to extinction in Ireland: the last wolf in Wicklow was killed at Glendalough in 1710.</p><br>
<p>Widespread clearance of forest began in the Bronze Age and continued up until the early 20th century. Afforestation programmes began in the 1920s and accelerated in the 1950s with the widespread planting of conifer forest, especially in upland moorland areas previously considered unsuitable for planting. The dominant tree is the sitka spruce, accounting for 58% of forest plantations, with lodgepole pine, Norway spruce, Scots pine, larch and Douglas fir also planted. Biodiversity is low in the conifer plantations because they are not native tree species. Broadleaf plantations are rare, accounting for less than 10% of forest.</p><br>
<p>The young rivers in the upper glens are spawning grounds for salmon and brown trout. Arctic char, isolated in the Wicklow lakes following the end of the last ice age, have been recorded in Lough Dan and the lakes of Glendalough but are now believed extinct. A programme to reintroduce them into the Upper Lake at Glendalough commenced in 2009.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The earliest evidence of human activity in the interior of Wicklow dates to around 4,300 BCE. Passage tombs, from the Neolithic period, are the earliest and most prominent feature of prehistoric Irish civilisation in the Wicklow Mountains. These tombs sit on many of the western and northern summits between Saggart in Dublin and Baltinglass in Wicklow, such as at Seefin and Seefingan. Archaeologist Geraldine Stout has suggested they had a territorial marking function, much like modern-day border posts. Other prehistoric monuments to be found in the uplands include stone circles, standing stones and rock art. The presence of standing stones at altitudes suggests they may have served route-marking purposes. The largest complex of hill forts in Ireland is to be found on the hills near Baltinglass.</p><br>
<p>The earliest known tribes to have controlled the Wicklow Mountains include the Dál Messin Corb, the Uí Mail, the Uí Theig and the Uí Briúin. One member of the Dál Messin Corb was Saint Kevin, who founded the monastery at Glendalough in the latter part of the 6th century. Kevin travelled to Glendalough from Hollywood, crossing the mountains via the Wicklow Gap. By the 8th century, Glendalough had grown into a substantial settlement of 500–1,000 people and an important site of learning and pilgrimage. Monasteries were often attacked, especially at times of disease or famine, and Glendalough&#39;s wealth made it a frequent target for both local tribes and, later, Norse invaders. The monastery declined in importance after the arrival of the Normans in the 12th century and its subsequent annexation to the Archdiocese of Dublin. It was burned by the English in 1398, although settlement there continued until the end of the 16th century. There are also important early Irish church sites in the Dublin foothills of the Wicklow Mountains at Rathmichael and Tully.</p><br>
<p>In 1170, during the Norman invasion of Ireland, Strongbow and Dermot MacMurrough successfully laid siege to Dublin by following a high route through the Wicklow Mountains, avoiding the defences along the normal route to the west of the mountains. The Norman invasion displaced two important Gaelic clans from Kildare, the OByrnes and the OTooles, who moved into the Wicklow Mountains, the OByrnes in the east and the OTooles in the west. From their mountain strongholds both families conducted a persistent campaign of harassment against the invaders and the Wicklow Mountains became known as the terra guerre (“land of war”), as opposed to the terra pacis (“land of peace”) of the settled lowlands.</p><br>
<p>The valley of Glenmalure provided an almost unassailable refuge for the clans and English forces suffered heavy defeats there, first in 1274 and again in 1580 in the Battle of Glenmalure. The latter defeat was at the hands of Fiach McHugh OByrne, who led many attacks against the English and assisted in the escapes of many of the hostages held by the English to guarantee the loyalty of the Irish clans. One such hostage was Red Hugh ODonnell, who escaped from Dublin Castle on the night of 6 January 1592 in the company of Art ONeill. The two men crossed the mountains in blizzard conditions, making for Fiach McHugh OByrnes stronghold at Glenmalure. Art ONeill died from exposure during the journey and Red Hugh had several toes amputated due to frostbite. A cross and a plaque to the north of Conavalla mountain mark the place where Art ONeill perished and an annual walk is now held following in the two mens footsteps. The OByrnes and OTooles dominance finally came to an end with the Act of Succession of 1652 when their land was confiscated by the English Commonwealth.</p><br>
<p>A prolonged period of peace reigned in the Wicklow Mountains from the end of the Cromwellian period until the 1798 Rising. Although the main rebellion was quickly defeated, Irish rebels once again used the Wicklow Mountains as a hiding place and stronghold to attack the English for many years afterwards. Among their number was Michael Dwyer, a native of the Wicklow Mountains, born in the townland of Camara in the Glen of Imaal, and General Joseph Holt. Both men eventually surrendered and were transported to Australia. Determined to prevent any future rebel activity, a military road through the mountains, similar to those built in the Scottish Highlands to quell the Jacobite risings, was proposed by the British government to enable troops to be deployed quickly into the region. The Wicklow Military Road was constructed between 1800 and 1809 and runs from Rathfarnham, County Dublin to Aghavannagh, County Wicklow via Glencree, the Sally Gap and Laragh. A series of army barracks and police stations were built along the route, although they were little used and soon fell into disrepair as the Wicklow Mountains soon ceased to be a centre of rebel activity after the road was completed.</p><br>
<p>The census of 1841 recorded a population of 13,000 in the Wicklow uplands out of 126,143 persons in the county as a whole. Following the Great Famine, the census of 1891 showed that the population of County Wicklow had declined to 62,136 with the proportionate fall in the uplands regions even greater as the populace deserted the marginal lands.</p><br>
<p>The construction of the railways in the 19th century led to the development of tourism in the Wicklow Mountains. Visitors were taken by horse-drawn transport into the mountains from the railway station at Rathdrum. Glendalough quickly established itself as the most popular tourist destination and a train service there was considered in 1897 but the proposals came to nothing. The tourism potential of the Military Road was spotted soon after its completion and G. N. Wright&#39;s Tours in Ireland (1822) is one of the earliest guides to the sights along the route.</p><br>
<h2>Present day</h2><br>
<p>The principal farming activity in the uplands is sheep grazing, using mainly the Wicklow Cheviot breed. Land is also used for forestry and turf cutting. Tourism and recreation are also major activities in the uplands. Glendalough remains the most popular destination, receiving around one million visitors each year. Recreational activities in the mountains include walking, rock climbing,winter climbing, fishing and cycling. Hillwalking in the Wicklow Mountains was first popularised by J. B. Malone through a weekly column he wrote in the Evening Herald newspaper. Malone was later instrumental in the creation of the Wicklow Way, Irelands first National Waymarked Trail, which opened in 1980 and crosses the Wicklow Mountains. The Wicklow Way has been joined by the Dublin Mountains Way and the Saint Kevins Way pilgrim path, both of which also traverse parts of the mountains.</p><br>
<p>On foot of concerns about environmental degradation and undesirable development of the Wicklow Uplands, the Government announced the creation of the Wicklow Mountains National Park in 1990 to conserve the area&#39;s biodiversity and landscape. The park was officially established in 1991 and now encompasses an area of over 20,000 hectare. In addition, the Wicklow Mountains (including areas outside the National Park) are classed as a Special Area of Conservation under the EU Habitats Directive and as a Special Protection Area under the EU Birds Directive.</p><br>
<p>The Dublin foothills of the Wicklow Mountains are managed by the Dublin Mountains Partnership (DMP), a group established in May 2008 with the aim of improving the recreational experience of users of the Dublin Mountains. Its members include representatives of state agencies, local authorities and recreational users. The DMP has restored paths and developed walking trails, orienteering courses and a mountain biking course.</p><br>
<p>Easdale  is one of the Slate Islands, in the Firth of Lorn, Scotland. Once the centre of the Scottish slate industry, there has been some recent island regeneration.</p><br>
<p>A ferry sails from Easdale to Ellenabeich (Gaelic: Eilean nam Beathach) on the nearby island of Seil (Gaelic: Saoil), which is separated from Easdale by only a narrow channel. Confusingly, Ellenabeich is sometimes known as Easdale as a result of its traditional connections with the island.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>In 1549, Donald Monro, "Dean of the Isles" wrote, in brief reference to Easdale, of an island "namit in the Erische Leid Ellan Eisdcalfe" However the derivation of "Eisdcalfe" and this word&#39;s etymological relationship to "Easdale" is not clear. Haswell Smith (2004) notes that eas is Gaelic for "waterfall" and dal is Norse for "valley". Nonetheless, it is not clear why either description should apply to the island which is low lying and has no waterfalls.</p><br>
<p>The Gaelic name, Èisdeal or Eilean Èisdeal has a long vowel and local folk legend attributes this to a derivation from èist thall "listen to that yonder". Gaelic Place-Names of Scotland states that the first element is obscure, the second Norse dalr. It is not clear if this Èisdeal shares its derivation with Gleann Èisdeal (Glen Ashdale) (Glen of Ash trees) on the Isle of Arran.</p><br>
<p>Ellenbeich is usually analysed as Eilean nam Beathach "island of the animals" but this may be a reflex of an earlier and homophonous form Eilean nam Beitheach "island of the birch trees".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Once a centre of the British slate industry, Easdale had a community of more than 500 working as many as seven quarries, some of which extended to 300 ft below sea level. Easdale slate helped to build major cities of the British Empire and can still be seen on rooftops as far afield as Melbourne, Nova Scotia, Dunedin and Dublin. The great storm of 1850 flooded most of the quarries. Lacking any means of pumping the water away, the slate industry on the island more or less came to an abrupt end. The last slate was cut in the 1950s and the once active quarries are little more than still pools which provide a safe haven for a wide variety of flora and bird life.</p><br>
<p>Nearby the former island Eilean-a-beithich once stood in the Easdale Sound between Easdale and Seil; however, it was quarried to a depth of 249 ft below sea level leaving only the outer rim of the island. This was eventually swept away by the sea and little visible sign of the island now remains.</p><br>
<p>By the early 1960s, the population had dwindled to only four people and the island appeared doomed. Descendants of the original quarrymen, along with others from around the world, have moved to Easdale to create a model of island regeneration. The island now has a population of around sixty people and is the smallest permanently inhabited island of the Inner Hebrides.</p><br>
<p>British indie rock band Florence and the Machine filmed their double-feature music video for their singles "Queen of Peace" and "Long & Lost" on the island, with the videos using the villagers as the cast.</p><br>
<h2>Current ownership</h2><br>
<p>The island is owned by Jonathan Feigenbaum, who succeeded his late father Clive Feigenbaum (the former chairman of Stanley Gibbons). Clive created local issues of stamps, and Jonathan has continued doing this.</p><br>
<h2>Facilities and activities</h2><br>
<p>The island is home to a folk museum owned and operated by the Eilean Eisdeal, a development trust, as well as a bar/restaurant called "The Puffer". Eilean Eisdeal spearheaded the renovation of the Easdale Island Community Hall, which provides a venue for a wide variety of events. According to Mike Scott of the Waterboys: "The Hall itself is magical. From the first sighting of its pyramid roof and arced frontispiece across the water to stepping off its stage at the end of the concert, it cast a spell on us."</p><br>
<p>In 2005 the local authority, Argyll and Bute Council, discussed plans to build a bridge between the island and Seil, linking the island to the mainland by road, despite there being no roads on Easdale. A company who operate high speed boat trips to view wild life and other local places of interest in the area have their base on Easdale.</p><br>
<p>The World Stone Skimming Championship has taken place annually in September on Easdale since 1997. In 2012 the event came under threat after Jonathan Feigenbaum requested £1,000 for using the slate quarry the championship uses. The competition only went ahead after the Press and Journal newspaper offered to pay the fee. A community buyout of the island by residents is now under consideration. Mike Russell, MSP for Argyll and Bute said: "Not every community will achieve it and not every community should achieve it. But it is a live issue and becomes even more live in circumstances such as these."</p><br>
<h2>Images of the island</h2><br>
<h2>Footnotes</h2><br>
<p>Southampton Water is a tidal estuary north of the Solent and the Isle of Wight in England. The city of Southampton lies at its most northerly point. Along its salt marsh-fringed western shores lie the New Forest villages of Hythe and "the waterside", Dibden Bay, and the Esso oil refinery at Fawley. On the slightly steeper eastern shore are the Southampton suburb of Weston, the villages of Netley and Hamble-le-Rice, and the Royal Victoria Country Park.</p><br>
<p>Together with the Solent, Southampton Water is world-renowned for yachting. It served as one of the sailing and motorboating venues for the 1908 Summer Olympics.</p><br>
<p>Geographically, Southampton Water is classified as a ria, or drowned valley, of the English Channel. It was formed by the rivers Test, Itchen and Hamble which flow into it, and became an inlet of the sea at the end of the last ice age when sea levels rose, flooding many valleys in the south of England. In particular, it is likely that Southampton Water formed partly due to the submerging of the River Solent which previously flowed through the area, and of which the River Test, River Itchen and River Medina are thought to be tributaries.</p><br>
<p>Southampton&#39;s emergence as a major port, and particularly as a port handling very large vessels, depended partly on certain geographical features of Southampton Water. Its depth, even in its undeveloped state, was generous; this depth of water has been increased over the years with comparative ease since the soft silt of the river-bed allows for easy dredging. An additional factor is the phenomenon of the "double tide", which results in unusually prolonged periods of high water. This greatly facilitates the movements of very large ships.</p><br>
<p>Southampton Water is an estuary with major potential for land use conflicts. An area of urban development (the Waterside) runs in the narrow band of land between Southampton Water and the New Forest National Park. Villages such as Marchwood, Hythe, Dibden Purlieu, Holbury and Fawley have all experienced significant growth.</p><br>
<h2>Dibden Bay</h2><br>
<p>Between Hythe and Marchwood, an area of reclaimed land – Dibden Bay – was the site of a proposed port expansion by Associated British Ports. This was argued to be essential for the continued economic development of the Port of Southampton but the development was vigorously opposed by conservation groups. The intertidal marshlands of Dibden Bay have international significance (Ramsar status).</p><br>
<p>The planning enquiry eventually rejected the application from Associated British Ports recommending that the environmental value of the site could not be overruled when there were alternative sites for port expansion in southern England which had not yet been fully explored. The government accepted the recommendations of the planning inspector in April 2005.</p><br>
<p>In July 2009, Associated British Ports launched a consultation on a 20-year masterplan for Southampton port. It sets out plans for future growth: "In identifying the Dibden reclaim as the only possible location for port expansion, ABP is fully aware of the nature conservation value of the site and the adjoining foreshore… Our demand forecasts indicate that expansion into the Dibden reclaim will become necessary between 2021 and 2027".</p><br>
<h2>Introduced species</h2><br>
<p>In 1925 American hard-shelled clams were introduced into the River Test in an area warmed by cooling water discharge of Southampton Power Station in an attempt to breed them to allow them to be used as eel bait.</p><br>
<p>The Green Mountains are a mountain range in the U.S. state of Vermont. The range runs primarily south to north and extends approximately 250 mi from the border with Massachusetts to that with Quebec, Canada. The part of the same range that is in Massachusetts and Connecticut is known as The Berkshires or the Berkshire Hills  and the Quebec portion is called the Sutton Mountains, or &#39;Monts Sutton&#39;.</p><br>
<p>All mountains in Vermont are often referred to as the "Green Mountains". However, other ranges within Vermont, including the Taconics—in southwestern Vermont&#39;s extremity—and the Northeastern Highlands, are not geologically part of the Green Mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Peaks</h2><br>
<p>The best-known mountains—for reasons such as high elevation, ease of public access by road or trail (especially the Long Trail and Appalachian Trail), or with ski resorts or towns nearby—in the range include:</p><br>
<p>Mount Mansfield, 4,393 ft, the highest point in Vermont</p><br>
<p>Killington Peak, 4,241 ft</p><br>
<p>Mount Ellen, 4,083 ft</p><br>
<p>Camel&#39;s Hump, 4,083 ft</p><br>
<p>Mount Abraham, 4,017 ft</p><br>
<p>Pico Peak, 3,957 ft</p><br>
<p>Stratton Mountain, 3,940 ft, the mountain at which the initial ideas of both the Long Trail and the Appalachian Trail were born</p><br>
<p>Jay Peak, 3,862 ft, receives the most snowfall on average in the eastern United States.</p><br>
<p>Bread Loaf Mountain, 3,835 ft</p><br>
<p>Mount Wilson, 3,780 ft</p><br>
<p>Glastenbury Mountain, 3,748 ft</p><br>
<p>The Green Mountains are part of the Appalachian Mountains, a range that stretches from Quebec in the north to Alabama in the south.</p><br>
<p>The Green Mountains are part of the New England/Acadian forests ecoregion.</p><br>
<p>Three peaks—Mount Mansfield, Camel&#39;s Hump, and Mount Abraham—support alpine vegetation.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Some of the mountains are developed for skiing and other snow-related activities. Others have hiking trails for use in summer. Mansfield, Killington, Pico, and Ellen have downhill ski resorts on their slopes. All of the major peaks are traversed by the Long Trail, a wilderness hiking trail that runs from the southern to northern borders of the state and is overlapped by the Appalachian Trail for roughly of its length.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Vermont Republic, also known as the Green Mountain Republic, existed from 1777 to 1791, at which time Vermont became the 14th state.</p><br>
<p>Vermont not only takes its state nickname ("The Green Mountain State") from the mountains, it is named after them. The French Monts Verts or Verts Monts is literally translated as "Green Mountains". This name was suggested in 1777 by Dr. Thomas Young, an American revolutionary and Boston Tea Party participant. The University of Vermont and State Agricultural College is referred to as UVM, after the Latin Universitas Viridis Montis (University of the Green Mountains).</p><br>
<h2>Geology and physiography</h2><br>
<p>The Green Mountains are a physiographic section of the larger New England province, which in turn is part of the larger Appalachian physiographic division.</p><br>
<p>Lemon Fair runs through the towns of Orwell, Sudbury, Shoreham, Bridport, and Cornwall, Vermont, before flowing into Otter Creek. The story is that its name derives from early English-speaking settlers phonetic approximation of Les Monts Vert&#39;.</p><br>
<p>Key Largo is an island in the upper Florida Keys archipelago and is the largest section of the Keys, at 33 mi long. It is one of the northernmost of the Florida Keys in Monroe County, and the northernmost of the Keys connected by U.S. Highway 1 . Its earlier Spanish name was Cayo Largo, meaning long islet.</p><br>
<p>Key Largo is connected to the mainland in Miami-Dade County by two routes. The first route is The Overseas Highway, which is USA Highway 1 that enters Key Largo at Jewfish Creek near the middle of the island and turns southwest. The second route is Card Sound Road, which connects to the northern part of Key Largo at Card Sound Bridge and runs southeastward to connect with County Road 905, which runs southwest and joins USA 1 at about mile marker 106. These routes originate at Florida City on the mainland.</p><br>
<p>Key Largo is a popular tourist destination and calls itself the "Diving Capital of the World" because the living coral reef a few miles offshore attracts thousands of scuba divers and sport-fishing enthusiasts.</p><br>
<p>In 1870 a Post Office was established at "Caya Largo" (in the current Rock Harbor area). It closed and another was opened called "Largo" in 1881. An additional Post Offices opened in Planter in 1891 and Aiken in 1895.</p><br>
<p>Key Largo&#39;s proximity to the Everglades also makes it a premier destination for kayakers and ecotourists. Automotive and highway pioneer and Miami Beach developer Carl G. Fisher built the Caribbean Club in 1938 as his last project.</p><br>
<p>The island gained fame as the setting for the 1948 film Key Largo, but apart from background filming used for establishing shots, the film was shot on a Warner Brothers sound stage in Hollywood. After the film&#39;s success, pressure from local businesses resulted in a change in the name of the post office serving the northern part of the island, from "Rock Harbor" to "Key Largo", on June 1, 1952. After that, every resident north of Tavernier had a Key Largo address and the postmark read "Key Largo".</p><br>
<p>Three census-designated places are on the island of Key Largo: North Key Largo, near the Card Sound Bridge, Key Largo, eight or nine miles from the southern end of the island, and Tavernier, at the southern end of the island. As of 2010, the three places have a combined population of 13,850. None of Key Largo is an incorporated municipality, so it is governed at the local level by Monroe County.</p><br>
<p>Key Largo is situated between Everglades National Park to the northwest and John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park to the east, the first underwater park in the United States and the site of the only living coral barrier reef in the continental United States.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and geography</h2><br>
<p>The island of Key Largo is an exposed, fossilized remnant of a coral reef formed during a period of higher sea level and then uncovered and eroded during a subsequent ice age. The highest elevation is a slight ridge forming the spine of the island, which rises to about 15 ft.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s substrate is called Key Largo limestone; in many places, fossilized corals and smooth, eroded limestone "caprock" are visible at the surface. Solution holes, which are pockets dissolved in the limestone by acidic rainwater, form shallow depressions in the land. The natural shoreline of the island is generally rocky. A slippery, gray, limestone-based clay called "marl" is the shoreline and near-shore soil. There are no natural sand beaches on the island. Inland, decomposed vegetation forms a rich, acidic humus soil up to about six inches thick, topped by "leaf litter". The soil supports a diverse flora of herbaceous plants, woody shrubs and hardwood trees.</p><br>
<p>Key Largo&#39;s climate is tropical (Aw or tropical savanna in Köppen climate classification). Frost has never been recorded on the island. Key Largo enjoys close to 3,000 hours of sunshine annually.</p><br>
<p>North Dumpling Island is the northernmost of two islands in Fishers Island Sound, located about 0.3 nautical miles  north of South Dumpling Island. The two-acre  island is privately owned by Dean Kamen, inventor of the Segway Human Transporter and founder of FIRST, and is home to the North Dumpling Lighthouse. It is a mile  off the coast of Connecticut, south of Groton, Connecticut, but is within the territory of the town of Southold in New York State.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island was bought by John Winthrop, son of the governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, and owned by the Winthrop family until 1847, when it was sold to the federal government to be the site of a lighthouse. In 1959, the beacon was automated and the lighthouse and grounds were sold to a private party. In 1986, Kamen bought it.</p><br>
<p>After Kamen was denied permission to build a wind turbine on the island, he joked that he was seceding from the United States.</p><br>
<p>Kamen&#39;s secession is not legally recognized, but he still refers to the island as the "Kingdom of North Dumpling" and has established a constitution, flag, currency, national anthem, and a navy consisting of a single amphibious vehicle. The people of North Dumpling are called "Dumplonians", and Kamen is said to refer to himself as "Lord Dumpling" or "Lord Dumpling II". In addition to North Dumpling Lighthouse, the island has a replica of Stonehenge.</p><br>
<p>The Wind River Range , is a mountain range of the Rocky Mountains in western Wyoming in the United States. The range runs roughly NW-SE for approximately 100 miles . The Continental Divide follows the crest of the range and includes Gannett Peak, which at 13,804 feet , is the highest peak in Wyoming. There are more than 40 other named peaks in excess of 13,000 feet . With the exception of the Grand Teton in the Teton Range, the next 19 highest peaks in Wyoming after Gannett are also in the Winds. Two large National Forests including three wilderness areas encompass most of the mountain range. Shoshone National Forest is on the eastern side of the continental divide while Bridger-Teton National Forest is on the west. Both National Forests and the entire mountain range are an integral part of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Portions of the range are also inside the Wind River Indian Reservation.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Indigenous peoples of the Great Basin, such as the Shoshones and Absarokas (Crow) Native Americans, lived in the range beginning 7000 and 9000 years ago. Villages as high as 10,000 feet in elevation, dating from 700 to 2000 BC, have recently been studied by archaeologists. These villages were established by the Sheepeater band of Shoshone during pine nut harvesting season. One, dubbed "High Rise", has 60 lodges over a space of 26 acres and was recently added to the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>One of the men from the Lewis and Clark expedition, John Colter, is thought to be the first European American person to view the range when he visited the area around 1807, though little is known about his travels through the area. In 1812, a party led by Wilson Price Hunt were the first to cross South Pass, at the southern end of the range, the pass which marked the continental divide and crest of the Rocky Mountains and became an important portion of the Oregon Trail.</p><br>
<p>Climbing was pursued in the mid to late 1800s by men such as John C. Fremont, typically for the purpose of surveying the region. Early climbers to come purely for recreation began arriving in the 1920s. Gannett Peak, the range and Wyomings tallest, was first climbed by Arthur Tate and Floyd Stahlnaker in 1922. Most of the early climbing in the region focused around the Titcomb Basin, slowly radiating outwards. Today, the Titcomb Basin remains one of the areas busiest recreation attractions along with the Cirque of the Towers to the south.</p><br>
<p>Much of the Wind River Range received federal protection as National Forest primitive areas during 1931-32. The Wind River Range is now largely protected by three federal wilderness areas. These include the Bridger Wilderness on the western slope, designated in 1964, and the Fitzpatrick Wilderness and Popo Agie Wilderness on the eastern slope, designated in 1976 and 1984 respectively. Together these wilderness areas protect 728,020 acres, making the Wind River Range one of the largest road-free areas in the continental United States. Part of the eastern slope of the Wind River Range is also under the protection of the Wind River Indian Reservation.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Winds are composed primarily of a granitic batholith which is granite rock formed deep under the surface of the Earth, over one billion years ago. Over hundreds of millions of years, rocks that were once covering this batholith eroded away. As the land continued to rise during the Laramide orogeny, further erosion occurred until all that remained were the granitic rocks. The ice ages beginning 500,000 years ago began carving the rocks into their present shapes. Within the Winds, numerous lakes were formed by the glaciers and numerous cirques, or circular valleys, were carved out of the rocks, the most well known being the Cirque of the Towers, in the southern section of the range. Shoshone National Forest claims that there are 16 named and 140 unnamed glaciers just on the east side of the range for a total of 156, with another 27 reported by Bridger-Teton National Forest for the western slopes of the range. Several of these are the largest glaciers in the USA Rocky Mountains. Gannett Glacier which flows down the north slope of Gannett Peak, is the largest single glacier in the Rocky Mountains of the USA, and is located in the Fitzpatrick Wilderness in Shoshone National Forest.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrology</h2><br>
<p>Several major rivers have headwaters on either side of the range. The Green and Big Sandy rivers drain southward from the west side of the range, while the Wind River drains eastward through the Shoshone Basin. The Green is the largest fork of the Colorado River while the Wind River, after changing its name to the Bighorn River, is the largest fork of the Yellowstone River</p><br>
<p>The Bridger Wilderness contains over 1,300 lakes. These lakes range in size from less than 3 acre to over 200 acre, with an average size of about 10 acre. Historically, the lakes and streams of the Bridger Wilderness were devoid of fish, as were most alpine lakes throughout the Rocky Mountains. The first known transplant of fish into the area took place in 1907 when Colorado River cutthroat trout were introduced into North Fork Lake. Considerable fish stocking by individuals, the USA Forest Service, and the Wyoming Game & Fish Department, occurred between 1924 and 1935.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The Winds are known to have a small grizzly bear population, primarily in the northernmost areas. Other mammals include the black bear, elk, moose, mule deer, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, and wolverine. Bald eagles, falcons and hawks are just a few of the 300 species of birds known to inhabit the region. The streams and lakes are home to Yellowstone cutthroat, rainbow, brook, brown, lake, and golden trout—about 2.5 million of which were stocked by a local explorer named Finis Mitchell and his wife during the Great Depression. The forests are dominated by lodgepole pine, whitebark pine, subalpine fir, and Engelmann spruce.</p><br>
<p>The range sits alongside many of the animal migration routes in the United States and contains several important passes, notably South Pass, (7,412 ft / 2,301 m), at the south end of the range, which was one of the more important passes on the Oregon Trail as it passed through the Rockies. Aside from South Pass, which is at the southernmost tip of the range, no roads cross the mountains until Union Pass, (9,210 ft / 2,807 m) at the northern terminus of the range. There are many passes between tall peaks across the continental divide, which runs through the entire range.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>The Winds are a popular recreation destination, much of which is described in Joe Kelsey&#39;s Climbing and Hiking in the Wind River Mountains, a guidebook for the range that many consider definitive. The range’s vast wilderness areas attract many hikers, climbers and skiers. The Winds have many back country areas that see heavy use despite the relative remoteness of many of the trail-heads and the long approaches from those trail-heads to reach routes. The exposed granite in the higher elevations of the range is particularly attractive to climbers and areas such as Cirque of the Towers in the southern portion of the range are facing overuse issues as a result. According to the White Pine Ski Resort website, the Winds are home to one ski area, White Pine, the only lift-accessible skiing and snowboarding in the range. Located near Pinedale, it is the oldest ski area in Wyoming.</p><br>
<p>The Transverse Ranges are a group of mountain ranges of southern California, in the Pacific Coast Ranges physiographic region in North America. The Transverse Ranges begin at the southern end of the California Coast Ranges and lie between Santa Barbara and San Diego counties. They derive the name Transverse Ranges due to their east–west orientation, making them transverse to the general north–south orientation of most of California&#39;s coastal mountains.</p><br>
<p>Most of the system lies in the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion. Lower elevations are dominated by chaparral and scrubland, while higher elevations support large conifer forests. Most of the ranges in the system are fault blocks, and were uplifted by tectonic movements during the Cenozoic Era. West of Tejon Pass, the primary rock types are varied, with a mix of sedimentary, volcanic, and metamorphic rocks, while regions east of the pass are dominated by plutonic granitic and metasedimentary rocks.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Most of the Transverse Ranges are bounded to the north and east by the San Andreas Fault, which separates the ranges from the California Coast Ranges and the Peninsular Ranges. Notable passes along the fault include Tejon Pass, Cajon Pass, and San Gorgonio Pass. Components of Transverse Ranges to the north of the fault include the Tehachapi Mountains and the San Bernardino Mountains. The western and southern boundaries are generally acknowledged to be the Pacific Ocean and various alluvial valleys and basins. Major passes not along the San Andreas Fault include Gaviota Pass, San Marcos Pass, the Conejo Grade, Newhall Pass, and Cahuenga Pass.</p><br>
<p>The mountains are notable for being steep and difficult to traverse. There are few passes that are sufficiently low or wide enough to accommodate significant volumes of traffic. This has resulted in situations where major cities are linked to the rest of the state by relatively few number of roads; for example, the vast majority of traffic between the Central Valley and the Los Angeles area is routed through Tejon Pass. This results in significant traffic issues throughout Southern California when a pass has to be shut down due to heavy snow or construction. Occasionally, such as Santa Barbara during the 2005 La Conchita landslide, major cities may be cut off from timely road access to the rest of Southern California.</p><br>
<p>The Transverse Ranges manifest themselves as a series of roughly parallel ridges with an average height of 3000-8,000 ft. The ranges are dissected by young, steep streams of relatively low flow rate; as a result, there is high topographic relief throughout the range, and other than in marginal areas (e.g. the San Fernando Valley) and a few river valleys (such as Lockwood Valley and Big Bear Valley), there are no large, flat basins within the ranges.</p><br>
<h3>Peaks</h3><br>
<p>Major peaks of the Transverse Ranges with at least 500 ft of prominence, listed by height:</p><br>
<h3>Ranges</h3><br>
<p>The Transverse ranges run predominantly east–west, while the other coast ranges tend north–south, including the Central Coast Ranges to the north and the Peninsular Ranges to the south. They begin at Point Conception in Santa Barbara County, and include the Santa Ynez Mountains that run parallel to the coast behind Santa Barbara. Also in Santa Barbara County, they include the San Rafael Mountains and the Sierra Madre Mountains, both of which extend approximately to the Ventura County line. The Transverse Ranges also include the Topatopa Mountains and the Santa Susana Mountains of Ventura County and Los Angeles County, the Simi Hills, the Santa Monica Mountains that run along the Pacific coast behind Malibu, and whose eastern portion are known as the Hollywood Hills, and the Chalk Hills.</p><br>
<p>The Ranges include the steep San Gabriel Mountains northeast of Los Angeles, the San Rafael Hills, Puente Hills, San Jose Hills, and Chino Hills, and the San Bernardino Mountains. To the north of the Transverse ranges are the Central Coast Ranges, The Central Valley, and the Tehachapi Mountains, which separate the Central Valley from the Mojave Desert to the east, and link the Transverse ranges to the Sierra Nevada. The Mojave Desert and California&#39;s low desert, including the Coachella Valley, are at the eastern end of the ranges. The northern Channel Islands of California are also part of the Transverse Ranges; San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz and Anacapa Islands are a westward extension of the Santa Monica Mountains.</p><br>
<p>Mountain ranges with peaks exceeding 4,500 ft, listed west to east, include:</p><br>
<p>Santa Ynez Mountains</p><br>
<p>San Rafael Mountains</p><br>
<p>Pine Mountain Ridge</p><br>
<p>Topatopa Mountains</p><br>
<p>San Emigdio Mountains</p><br>
<p>Tehachapi Mountains</p><br>
<p>Sierra Pelona Mountains</p><br>
<p>San Gabriel Mountains</p><br>
<p>San Bernardino Mountains</p><br>
<p>Little San Bernardino Mountains</p><br>
<p>Examples of smaller mountain and hill ranges include:</p><br>
<p>Santa Monica Mountains</p><br>
<p>Santa Susana Mountains</p><br>
<p>Simi Hills</p><br>
<p>Chalk Hills</p><br>
<p>San Rafael Hills</p><br>
<p>Puente Hills</p><br>
<p>San Jose Hills</p><br>
<p>Shandin Hills</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The climate in most of the range is Csb (Warm-summer Mediterranean) under the Köppen climate classification; the upper reaches of San Gorgonio Mountain have an alpine tundra climate (ET), while the lower northern slopes of the range have a desert (BW) or steppe (BS) climate.</p><br>
<p>Snow falls above 6,000 ft most winters, and above 3,000 ft every few years. It is rare for elevations above 8,000 ft to go multiple winters without snow, even during severe droughts. Due to relatively low humidity, the regional snow line lies at about 14000-16,000 ft, above the highest elevation of the range; as such, snow does not persist year-round except in the form of snow patches.</p><br>
<p>The tree line lies at about 11,000 ft; San Gorgonio Mountain is the only peak with an alpine environment.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Transverse Ranges have a complex geological history, and the rock composition of the ranges is varied.</p><br>
<h3>Tectonics</h3><br>
<p>The Transverse Ranges represent a complex of tectonic forces and faulting stemming from the interaction of the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate along the San Andreas Fault system. Their orientation along an east–west axis as opposed to the general southeast-northwest trend of most California ranges results from a pronounced step in the San Andreas Fault, the cause of which is a subject of intensive ongoing study. The San Andreas Fault is a dextral strike-slip fault with a right step, causing the mountains. Their elevation is somewhat better understood as a consequence of this step. The crust atop the Pacific Plate south of the ranges does not easily make the turn westward as the entire plate moves northwestward, forcing pieces of the crust to compress and lift.</p><br>
<p>The crust which comprises the Transverse Ranges is part of what is known as the Salinian Block, originally a piece of the North American Plate which was broken off what is now northwestern Mexico as the Gulf of California rifted open.</p><br>
<p>Physiographically, the Transverse Ranges are a distinct physiographic section of the larger Pacific Border province, which in turn is part of the larger Pacific Mountain System. They exhibit extreme differences in geologic age and composition, varying from sedimentary rocks in the western Santa Ynez and Santa Monica mountains to primarily granitic and metamorphic rock in the eastern regions, where they terminate abruptly in the San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountains.</p><br>
<p>Between this set of ranges and the Peninsular Ranges is the complex Malibu Coast—Santa Monica—Hollywood fault, which exists as the border between these two mostly geologically unitary provinces.</p><br>
<h3>Rocks</h3><br>
<p>The rock types in the ranges are extremely varied. The oldest rocks are of Proterozoic age, and are found in the San Gabriel Mountains, the San Emigdio Mountains, and the San Bernardino Mountains. The Jurassic-Cretaceous Franciscan Assemblage is found in the western section of the ranges. Exposed plutonic rocks from the Mesozoic, mostly granites, can be found on Mount Pinos and generally in regions east of Tejon Pass. Finally, the youngest rocks are Cenozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks that can be found throughout the ranges.</p><br>
<p>Some limestones can be found in the Santa Ynez Mountains; these are remnants of ancient marine fossils. Some rhyolite dikes, presumably formed from rifting processes, can be found around the San Andreas Rift Zone.</p><br>
<h3>Petroleum</h3><br>
<p>The California Geologic Survey states:</p><br>
<p>Great thicknesses of Cenozoic petroleum-rich sedimentary rocks have been folded and faulted, making this one of the most important oil-producing areas in the United States.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The plant place of the Transverse ranges include coastal sage scrub, oak woodland and savanna, and pinyon-juniper woodland at lower elevations, and yellow pine forest, Lodgepole Pine forest, and subalpine forest at higher elevations. The Angeles and Los Padres National Forests cover portions of the Transverse ranges. The ranges are part of the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, but the eastern points of the range touch two desert regions, the Mojave Desert and the Colorado Desert section of the Sonoran Desert. The Carrizo Plain adjoins the northern edge of the Transverse Range.</p><br>
<p>Chaparral is a common feature of the Transverse Ranges. Common plant associates in chaparral, especially in the transition between coastal chaparral and coastal sage scrub, include California sagebrush and Toyon, the latter shrub having its southern distribution limit defined by the Transverse Ranges.</p><br>
<p>Pinyon-juniper woodland is common on the north slopes of the San Gabriel and San Bernardino Mountains. This ecosystem is easily visible in the well-travelled Soledad Pass region, between Pearblossom and Santa Clarita.</p><br>
<h3>Urban impact</h3><br>
<p>A number of densely populated coastal plains and interior valleys lie between the mountain ranges, including the Oxnard Plain of coastal Ventura County, the Santa Clarita Valley north of Los Angeles, the San Fernando Valley, which is mostly included in the City of Los Angeles. The Los Angeles Basin, which includes the portion of Los Angeles County south of the Santa Monica Mountains and most of Orange County, and the Inland Empire basin, which includes the cities of San Bernardino and Riverside, lie between the Transverse Ranges and the Peninsular Ranges to the south.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>There are a number of important freeways that cross the Transverse Ranges, such as (from west to east) US-101, I-5 at Tejon Pass, SR 14 at Soledad Pass, and I-15 at Cajon Pass. These highways link Southern California with places to the north and northeast like San Francisco and Las Vegas, respectively. With the exception of several high passes on less-traveled SR 33, SR 2, SR 330. SR 18 and SR 38, none of these passes are at high elevations, with Cajon Pass being at a modest 4,190 ft (1,277 m) above mean sea level; this means that snow is less of a factor here than in the moderate to high mountain passes to the north like Donner Pass. Still sometimes, heavy snowfall can snarl traffic on Tejon and Cajon Pass, the higher two of the three freeway passes. I-5 and I-15 commonly experience heavy traffic over their mountainous route across these mountains.</p><br>
<p>Auckland Island is the main island of the Auckland Islands, an uninhabited archipelago in the south Pacific Ocean belonging to New Zealand. It is inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage list together with the other subantarctic New Zealand islands in the region as follows: 877-004 Auckland Isls, New Zealand S50.29 E165.52 62560Ha 1998</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island has a land area of about 442.5 km&sup2, and is 42 km long. It is notable for its steep cliffs and rugged terrain, which rises to over 600 m. Prominent peaks include Cavern Peak (659 m), Mount Raynal (635 m), Mount D&#39;Urville (630 m), Mount Easton (610 m), and the Tower of Babel (550 m).</p><br>
<p>The southern end of the island broadens to a width of 26 km. Here, a narrow channel known as Carnley Harbour (on some maps the Adams Straits) separates the main island from the smaller Adams Island. The channel is the remains of the crater of an extinct volcano, Adams Island and the southern part of the main island form the crater rim. 3 km north of Carnley Harbour&#39;s mouth lies Cape Lovitt, the westernmost point of New Zealand.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>The island is part of the Auckland Island group Important Bird Area (IBA), identified as such by BirdLife International because of the significance of the group as a breeding site for several species of seabirds as well as the endemic Auckland shag, Auckland teal, Auckland rail and Auckland snipe.</p><br>
<p>There are introduced Auckland Island pig, cats and mice are present on the island.</p><br>
<p>Goats were introduced to the Auckland Islands several times in the second half of the nineteenth century, to serve as a source of food for castaway sailors, with at least one liberation in 1865 on the main Auckland Island. By the 1970s, only one population remained, a group of about 100 based on the northwest side of Port Ross, in the north-east of the main island. In 1986 and 1987, over 60 animals were removed from the island for captive breeding in New Zealand. A decision was made to eradicate the remaining animals, an operation which was completed by 1992. An investigation in 1999 into the fate of the translocated animals in New Zealand found that the breed had become extinct.</p><br>
<h2>In film</h2><br>
<p>The 1955 film The Sea Chase has a German merchant ship fleeing from British and Australian naval ships at the beginning of World War II.</p><br>
<p>The ship stops at Auckland Island (the film was shot at Hawaii) to take victuals from the rescue station. A pro-Nazi officer shoots the three castaway fishermen he finds there, following which time another ship locates the corpses and chases the German ship.</p><br>
<p>The plot is inspired by the trip of Norddeutscher Lloyd steamer Erlangen.</p><br>
<p>Lake Maninjau  is a caldera lake in West Sumatra, Indonesia. It is located 36 km to the west of Bukittinggi, at {{coord|0|19|S|100|12|E|type:waterbody_region:ID}}.</p><br>
<h2>Formation</h2><br>
<p>The Maninjau caldera was formed by a volcanic eruption estimated to have occurred around 52,000 years ago. Deposits from the eruption have been found in a radial distribution around Maninjau extending up to 50 km to the east, 75 km to the southeast, and west to the present coastline. The deposits are estimated to be distributed over 8500 km² and have a volume of 220–250 km³. The caldera has a length of 20 km and a width of 8 km.</p><br>
<h2>The lake</h2><br>
<p>Lake Maninjau has an area of 99.5 km², being approximately 16 km long and 7 km wide. The average depth is 105 m, with a maximum depth of 165 m. The natural outlet for excess water is the Antokan river, located on the west side of the lake. It is the only lake in Sumatra which has a natural outlet to the west coast. Since 1983 this water has been used to generate hydroelectric power for West Sumatra, generated around 68 MW at maximum load.</p><br>
<p>Most of the people who live around Lake Maninjau are ethnically Minangkabau. Villages on the shores of the lake include Maninjau and Bayur.</p><br>
<p>Maninjau is a notable tourist destination in the region due to its scenic beauty and mild climate. It is also used as a site for paragliding.</p><br>
<h2>Local fishing and agriculture</h2><br>
<p>Two endemic species collected from the lake for local consumption and for export to markets outside the crater are pensi, a species of small mussel, and palai rinuak, a type of small fish. One method of preparing palai rinuak is to grill a mixture of the fish along with coconut and spices, wrapped in a banana leaf.</p><br>
<p>The lake is used for aquaculture, using karamba floating net cages. The technique was introduced in 1992, and by 1997 there were over 2,000 cage units with over 600 households engaged. Each cage may have 3-4 production cycles each year. There is evidence of pollution around some karamba area.</p><br>
<p>On the edge of the lake, the landuse includes rice fields in the swamps and the lower slopes. The villages are bordered uphill by a large belt of forestlike tree gardens, which dissolves into the upper montane forest on the steepest parts of the slopes up to the ridge of the caldera.</p><br>
<p>The tree gardens include three typical components:</p><br>
<p>* Fruit trees including durian, jack fruit, cempedak, rambutan, langsat, golden berries and water apples.</p><br>
<p>* Timber species including Toona sinensis and Pterospermum javanicum.</p><br>
<p>* Spice trees including cinnamon, coffee, nutmeg and cardamum.</p><br>
<h2>Sukarno's pantun</h2><br>
<p>The first president of Indonesia, Sukarno, visited the area in early June 1948. A pantun he wrote about the lake reads:</p><br>
<p>Woleai, also known as Oleai, is a coral atoll of twenty-two islands in the eastern Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in the Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia and is located approximately 57 km west-northwest of Ifalik and 108 km northeast of Eauripik. Woleai is also the name of the largest of the islets constituting the atoll, lying to the northeast.</p><br>
<p>The population of the atoll was 1,081 in 2000, on an area of 4.5 km.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The islands constitute a double atoll forming the number eight, with a total length of 11.5 km and up to 7 km wide; however, most of reef on the southern rim is submerged or poorly developed. The northern and eastern rims have several relatively large islets. The western lagoon is deeper and larger than its eastern counterpart. Both components are part of the same seamount. The total land area for both components combined is only 4.5 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Woleai is culturally unique because a script was discovered to be in use among some speakers of the Woleaian language in 1913.</p><br>
<p>As with all of the Caroline Islands, sovereignty passed to the Empire of Germany in 1899. The atoll came under the control of the Empire of Japan after World War I, and was subsequently administered under the South Pacific Mandate.</p><br>
<p>In 1944, as the Allied forces closed in on the Mariana Islands, Woleai was heavily fortified by a contingent of 6,426 troops from the Imperial Japanese Army’s IJA 50th Independent Mixed Brigade and Imperial Japanese Navy’s 44th Base Guard Unit and 216th Base Construction Unit. Wolfe Islet was completely leveled, and made into an airfield with a single 3,290 foot runway and 2,050 foot taxiway. A seaplane anchorage was also constructed off the south-west corner of Woleai Islet. The island and its military facilities were bombed on numerous occasions through the end of 1944 until the middle of 1945, driving its defenders underground, and isolating them from supplies or reinforcements. By the surrender of Japan, only 1,650 survivors remained, the rest having perished by starvation or disease. The survivors were recovered by on September 17, 1945.</p><br>
<p>Following World War II, the atoll came under the control of the United States of America. It was administered as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from 1947, and became part of the Federated States of Micronesia beginning 1979.</p><br>
<p>The Montmorency Falls  is a large waterfall on the Montmorency River in Quebec, Canada. highest in the province of Quebec</p><br>
<p>The falls are located on the boundary between the borough of Beauport, and Boischatel, about 12 km from the heart of old Quebec City. The area surrounding the falls is protected within the Montmorency Falls Park (Parc de la Chute-Montmorency). The falls are at the mouth of the Montmorency River where it drops over the cliff shore into the Saint Lawrence River, opposite the western end of the Île d&#39;Orleans.</p><br>
<p>There are staircases that allow visitors to view the falls from several different perspectives. A suspension bridge over the crest of the falls provides access to both sides of the park as well as a spectacular view. There is also an aerial tram (Funitel) that carries passengers between the base and the top of the falls. In the summer the park hosts an international fireworks competition with the falls as a backdrop.</p><br>
<p>During summer months, the falls give off a yellow glow due to high iron content in the waterbed.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The falls, at 84 m high and 46 m wide, are the highest in the province of Quebec. They are 30 m higher than Niagara Falls. The basin at the foot of the falls is 17 m deep. The falls were given this name in 1613 by Samuel de Champlain. He named them in honour of Henri II, duc de Montmorency, who served as viceroy of New France from 1620 until 1625.</p><br>
<p>The remnants of earthen forts built by General Wolfe are located in the eastern portion of the park. They were constructed in 1759. The landings below Quebec City were repulsed by General Montcalm at Montmorency Falls, costing the British 440 soldiers. Ultimately a successful assault was launched when Wolfe made a surprise attack by climbing the cliffs below the Plains of Abraham.</p><br>
<p>The Falls were the site of a key scene between the lead actors in the 1947 film Whispering City, which was filmed on location.</p><br>
<p>The Ice Hotel was located at Montmorency Falls for its first year.</p><br>
<p>In his poem "Sleep and Poetry" (1816), John Keats says that human life is "a poor Indian&#39;s sleep / While his boat hastens to the monstrous steep / Of Montmorency."</p><br>
<p>St. Lawrence Island  is located west of mainland Alaska in the Bering Sea, just south of the Bering Strait. The village of Gambell is an island located on the northwest cape, 36 miles  from the Chukchi Peninsula in the Russian Far East. The island is part of Alaska, but closer to Siberia than to the Alaskan mainland. St. Lawrence Island is thought to be one of the last exposed portions of the land bridge that once joined Asia with North America during the Pleistocene period. It is the sixth largest island in the United States and the 113th largest island in the world. It is considered part of the Bering Sea Volcanic Province.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The United States Census Bureau defines St. Lawrence Island as Block Group 6, Census Tract 1 of Nome Census Area, Alaska. As of the 2000 census there were 1,292 people living on a land area of 1,791.56 square miles. The island is about 90 mi long and 8–22 miles (13–36 km) wide. The island has no trees, and the only woody plants are Arctic willow, standing no more than a foot (30 cm) high.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s abundance of seabirds and marine mammals is due largely to the influence of the Anadyr Current, an ocean current which brings cold, nutrient-rich water from the deep waters of the Bering Sea shelf edge.</p><br>
<p>To the south of the island is a persistent polynya, formed when the prevailing winds from the north and east blow the migrating ice away from the coast.</p><br>
<p>The climate of Gambell is:</p><br>
<h2>Villages</h2><br>
<p>The island contains two villages: Savoonga and Gambell. The two villages were given title to most of the land on St. Lawrence Island by the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act in 1971. As a result of having title to the land, the Yupik are legally able to sell the fossilized ivory and other artifacts found on St. Lawrence Island.</p><br>
<p>The island is now inhabited mostly by Siberian Yupik engaged in hunting, fishing, and reindeer herding. The St. Lawrence Island Yupik people are also known for their skill in carving, mostly with materials from marine mammals (walrus ivory and whale bone). The Arctic yo-yo may have evolved on the island.</p><br>
<h2>Prehistory</h2><br>
<p>St. Lawrence Island was first occupied around 2,000 to 2,500 years ago by coastal people characterized by artifacts decorated in the Okvik (oogfik) style. Archaeological sites on the Punuk Islands, off the eastern end of St. Lawrence Island, at Kukulik, near Savoonga and on the hill slopes above Gambell have evidence of the Okivik occupation. The Okvik decorative style is zoomorphic and elaborate, executed in a sometimes crude engraving technique, with greater variation than the Old Bering Sea and Punuk styles.</p><br>
<p>The Okivik occupation is influenced by and may have been coincident with the Old Bering Sea occupation of 2000 years ago to around 700 years ago, characterized by the simpler and more homogeneous Punuk style. Stone artifacts changed from chipped stone to ground slate; carved ivory harpoon heads are smaller and simpler in design.</p><br>
<p>Prehistoric and early historic occupations of St. Lawrence Island were never permanent, with periods of abandonment and reoccupation depending on resource availability and changes in weather patterns. Famine was common, as evidenced by Harris lines and enamel hypoplasia in human skeletons. Travel to and from the mainland was common during calm weather, so the island was used as a hunting base, and occupation sites were re-used periodically rather than permanently occupied.</p><br>
<p>Major archaeology sites at Gambell and Savoonga (Kukulik) were excavated by Otto Geist and Ivar Skarland of the University of Alaska Fairbanks. Collections from these excavations are curated at the University of Alaska Museum on the UAF campus.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island was called Sivuqaq by the Yupik who lived there. It was visited by Russian/Danish explorer Vitus Bering on St. Lawrence&#39;s Day, August 10, 1728, and named after the day of his visit. The island was the first place in Alaska known to have been visited by European explorers.</p><br>
<p>There were about 4,000 Central Alaskan Yupik and Siberian Yupik living in several villages on the island in the mid-19th century. They subsisted by hunting walrus and whale and by fishing. A famine in 1878–1880 caused many to starve and many others to leave, decimating the islands population. The revenue cutter visited the island in 1880 and estimated that out of 700 inhabitants, 500 were found dead of starvation. The blame was put on traders supplying the people with liquor causing the people to ″neglect laying up their usual supply of provisions″. Nearly all the residents remaining were Siberian Yupik.</p><br>
<p>Reindeer were introduced on the island in 1900 in an attempt to bolster the economy. The reindeer herd grew to about 10,000 animals by 1917, but has since declined. Reindeer are herded as a source of subsistence meat to this day.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>During World War II, islanders served in the Alaska Territorial Guard (ATG). Following disbandment of the ATG in 1947, and with the construction of Northeast Cape Air Force Station in 1952, many islanders joined the Alaska National Guard to provide for the defense of the island and station.</p><br>
<h3>Cold War</h3><br>
<p>The Soviet military were under strict orders to "avoid any action beyond the limits of the Soviet state frontiers."</p><br>
<p>The Soviet government "expressed regret in regard to the incident," and, "taking into account... conditions which do not exclude the possibility of a mistake from one side or the other," was willing to compensate the US for 50% of damages sustained—the first such offer ever made by the Soviets for any Cold War shoot-down incident.</p><br>
<p>The US government stated that it was satisfied with the Soviet expression of regret and the offer of partial compensation, although it said that the Soviet statement also fell short of what the available information indicated.</p><br>
<p>Northeast Cape Air Force Station, at the island&#39;s other end, was a United States Air Force facility consisting of an Aircraft Control and Warning (AC&W) radar site, a United States Air Force Security Service listening post; and a White Alice Communications System (WACS) site that operated from about 1952 to about 1972. The area surrounding the Northeast Cape base site had been a traditional camp site for several Yupik families for centuries. After the base closed down in the 1970s, many of these people started to experience health problems. Even today, people who grew up at Northeast Cape have high rates of cancer and other diseases, possibly due to PCB exposure around the site.</p><br>
<p>According to the State of Alaska, those elevated cancer rates have been shown to be comparable to the rates of other Alaskan and non-Alaskan arctic natives who were not exposed to a similar Air Force facility. In any event, the majority of the facility was removed in a $10.5 million cleanup program in 2003. Monitoring of the site will continue into the future.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The airports are Gambell Airport and Savoonga Airport.</p><br>
<p>Little Diomede Island  is an island of Alaska, United States. It is the smaller of the two Diomede Islands located in the middle of the Bering Strait between the Alaskan mainland and Siberia.</p><br>
<p>Little Diomede&#39;s neighboring island, Big Diomede, is about 2.33 mi to the west, but is part of Russia and west of the International Date Line. Unlike its larger Russian neighbor, Little Diomede retains a permanent native population. As of the 2010 census, Little Diomede had a population of 110, down from its recorded peak of 178 in 1990. The entirety of the island is in the City of Diomede (Inupiat: Iŋaliq meaning "the other one" or "the one over there"). The island is not part of any organized borough, so some services are provided directly by the state. For census purposes, it is included in the Nome Census Area.</p><br>
<p>During the Cold War, the section of the border between the USA and the USSR separating Big and Little Diomede became known as the "Ice Curtain". In 1987, however, Lynne Cox swam from Little Diomede to Big Diomede (approx. 2.2 mi) and was congratulated jointly by Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan.</p><br>
<p>Little Diomede was featured in the first episode of Full Circle with Michael Palin, a BBC documentary series in which the broadcaster Michael Palin traversed many of the countries of the Pacific Rim.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>According to the United States Census Bureau, the island has a total area of 2.8 square miles, all of it land. On the western shore of the island is the village of Diomede, also known as Iŋaliq.</p><br>
<p>Little Diomede Island is located about 25 km west from the mainland, in the middle of the Bering Strait. It is only 0.6 km from the International Date Line and about 2.4 mi from the Russian island of Big Diomede.</p><br>
<p>The highest point on Little Diomede Island is 494 m (about halfway along the west coast, about 1.5 mi southeast of the village, facing the southern tip of Big Diomede).</p><br>
<p>There is a heliport, the Diomede Heliport, with regular helicopter flights. During the winter, the villagers carve a runway into the thick ice sheet so that bush planes can deliver vital products, such as medicine. Due to annual variations of the ice sheet, the runway changes position every year.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Summer temperatures average 40 to 50 F. Winter temperatures average from 10 to 6 F Annual precipitation averages 10 in, and annual snowfall averages 30 in. During summer months,</p><br>
<p>cloudy skies and fog prevail. Winds blow consistently from the north, averaging 15 kn, with gusts of 60 to 80 mph. The Bering Strait is generally frozen between mid-December and mid-June.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Little Diomede island is composed of Cretaceous age granite or quartz monzonite. The location of the city is the only area which does not have near-vertical cliffs to the water. Behind the city and around the entire island rocky slopes rise at about 40° up to the relatively flattened top in 1,148 -. The island has very scant vegetation.</p><br>
<p>Meroë  is an ancient city on the east bank of the Nile about 6 km north-east of the Kabushiya station near Shendi, Sudan, approximately 200 km north-east of Khartoum. Near the site are a group of villages called Bagrawiyah. This city was the capital of the Kingdom of Kush for several centuries. The Kushitic Kingdom of Meroë gave its name to the Island of Meroë, which was the modern region of Butana, a region bounded by the Nile , the Atbarah and the Blue Nile.</p><br>
<p>The city of Meroë was on the edge of Butana and there were two other Meroitic cities in Butana: Musawwarat es-Sufra and Naqa. The first of these sites was given the name Meroë by the Persian king, Cambyses, in honor of his sister who was called by that name. The city had originally borne the ancient appellation Saba, named after the country&#39;s original founder. The eponym Saba, or Seba, is named for one of the sons of Cush (see: Genesis 10:7). The presence of numerous Meroitic sites within the western Butana region and on the border of Butana proper is significant to the settlement of the core of the developed region. The orientation of these settlements exhibit the exercise of state power over subsistence production.</p><br>
<p>The Kingdom of Kush which housed the city of Meroë represents one of a series of early states located within the middle Nile. It is one of the earliest and most impressive states found south of the Sahara. Looking at the specificity of the surrounding early states within the middle Nile, one&#39;s understanding of Meroë in combination with the historical developments of other historic states may be enhanced through looking at the development of power relation characteristics within other Nile Valley states.</p><br>
<p>The site of the city of Meroë is marked by more than two hundred pyramids in three groups, of which many are in ruins. They have distinctive size and proportions of Nubian pyramids.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Meroë was the south capital of the Napata/Meroitic Kingdom, that spanned the period c. 800 BCE – c. 350 CE. According to partially deciphered Meroitic texts, the name of the city was Medewi or Bedewi. Excavations revealed evidence of important, high ranking Kushite burials, from the Napatan Period (c. 800 – c. 280 BCE) in the vicinity of the settlement called the Western cemetery. The culture of Meroë developed from the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt, which originated in Kush. The importance of the town gradually increased from the beginning of the Meroitic Period, especially from the reign of Arakamani (c. 280 BCE) when the royal burial ground was transferred to Meroë from Napata (Gebel Barkal). In the fifth century BCE, Greek historian Herodotus described it as "a great city...said to be the mother city of the other Ethiopians." The city of Meroë was located along the middle Nile which is of much importance due to the annual flooding of the Nile river valley and the connection to many major river systems such as the Niger which aided with the production of pottery and iron characteristic to the Meroitic kingdom that allowed for the rise in power of its people.</p><br>
<p>Rome&#39;s conquest of Egypt led to border skirmishes and incursions by Meroë beyond the Roman borders. In 23 BCE the Roman governor of Egypt, Publius Petronius, to end the Meroitic raids, invaded Nubia in response to a Nubian attack on southern Egypt, pillaging the north of the region and sacking Napata (22 BCE) before returning home. In retaliation, the Nubians crossed the lower border of Egypt and looted many statues (among other things) from the Egyptian towns near the first cataract of the Nile at Aswan. Roman forces later reclaimed many of the statues intact, and others were returned following the peace treaty signed in 22 BCE between Rome and Meroë. One looted head though, from a statue of the emperor Augustus, was buried under the steps of a temple. It is now kept in the British Museum.</p><br>
<p>The next recorded contact between Rome and Meroë was in the autumn of 61 CE. The Emperor Nero sent a party of Praetorian soldiers under the command of a tribune and two centurions into this country, who reached the city of Meroë where they were given an escort, then proceeded up the White Nile until they encountered the swamps of the Sudd. This marked the limit of Roman penetration into Africa.</p><br>
<p>The period following Petronius&#39; punitive expedition is marked by abundant trade finds at sites in Meroë. L.P. Kirwan provides a short list of finds from archeological sites in that country. However, the kingdom of Meroë began to fade as a power by the 1st or 2nd century CE, sapped by the war with Roman Egypt and the decline of its traditional industries.</p><br>
<p>Meroë is mentioned succinctly in the 1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea:</p><br>
<p>The last period of the city is marked by the victory stele of an unnamed ruler of Aksum (almost certainly Ezana) erected at the site of Meroë; from his description, in Greek, that he was "King of the Aksumites and the Omerites," (i.e. of Aksum and Himyar) it is likely this king ruled sometime around 330.</p><br>
<h3>Meroë in Hebrew legend</h3><br>
<p>Hebrew oral tradition avers that Moses, in his younger years, had led an Egyptian military expedition into Sudan (Kush), as far as the city of Meroë, which was then called Saba. The city was built near the confluence of two great rivers and was encircled by a formidable wall, and governed by a renegade king. To ensure the safety of his men who traversed that desert country, Moses had invented a stratagem whereby the Egyptian army would carry along with them baskets of sedge, each containing an ibis, only to be released when they approached the enemys country. The purpose of the birds was to kill the deadly serpents that lay all about that country. Having successfully laid siege to the city, the city was eventually subdued by betrayal of the kings daughter, who had agreed to deliver the city unto Moses on condition that he would consummate a marriage with her, under the solemn assurance of an oath.</p><br>
<h2>Civilization</h2><br>
<p>Meroë was the base of a flourishing kingdom whose wealth was centered around a strong iron industry, as well as international trade involving India and China. Metalworking is believed to have gone on in Meroë, possibly through bloomeries and blast furnaces, and Archibald Sayce reportedly referred to it as "the Birmingham of Africa", because of perceived vast production and trade of iron (a contention that is a matter of debate in modern scholarship).</p><br>
<p>The centralized control of production within the Meroitic empire and distribution of certain crafts and manufactures may have been politically important with their iron industry and pottery crafts gaining the most significant attention. The Meroitic settlements were oriented in a savannah orientation with the varying of permanent and less permanent agricultural settlements can be attributed to the exploitation of rainlands and savannah-oriented forms of subsistence.</p><br>
<p>At the time, iron was one of the most important metals worldwide, and Meroitic metalworkers were among the best in the world. Meroë also exported textiles and jewelry. Their textiles were based on cotton and working on this product reached its highest achievement in Nubia around 400 BCE. Furthermore, Nubia was very rich in gold. It is possible that the Egyptian word for gold, nub, was the source of name of Nubia. Trade in "exotic" animals from farther south in Africa was another feature of their economy.</p><br>
<p>Apart from the iron trade, pottery was a widespread and prominent industry in the Meroe kingdom. The production of fine and elaborated decorated wares was a strong tradition within the middle nile. Such productions carried considerable social significance and are believed to be involved in mortuary rites. The long history of goods imported into the Meroitic empire and their subsequent distribution provides insight into the social and political workings of the Meroitic state. The major determinant of production was attributed to the availability of labor rather than the political power associated with land. Power was associated with control of people rather than control of territory.</p><br>
<p>The Egyptian import, the water-moving wheel, the sakia, was used to move water, in conjunction with irrigation, to increase crop production.</p><br>
<p>At its peak, the rulers of Meroë controlled the Nile Valley north to south, over a straight-line distance of more than 1,000 km.</p><br>
<p>The King of Meroë was an autocratic ruler who shared his authority only with the Queen Mother, or Candace. However, the role of the Queen Mother remains obscure. The administration consisted of treasurers, seal bearers, heads of archives and chief scribes, among others.</p><br>
<p>Although the people of Meroë also had southern deities such as Apedemak, the lion-son of Sekhmet (or Bast, depending upon the region), they also continued worshipping ancient Egyptian gods that they had brought with them. Among these deities were Amun, Tefnut, Horus, Isis, Thoth and Satis, though to a lesser extent.</p><br>
<p>The collapse of their external trade with other Nile Valley states may be considered as one of the prime causes of the decline of royal power and disintegration of the Meroitic state in the 3rd and 4th centuries CE.</p><br>
<h2>Language</h2><br>
<p>The Meroitic language was spoken in Meroë and the Sudan during the Meroitic period (attested from 300 BCE). It became extinct about 400 CE. The language was written in two forms of the Meroitic alphabet: Meroitic Cursive, which was written with a stylus and was used for general record-keeping; and Meroitic Hieroglyphic, which was carved in stone or used for royal or religious documents. It is not well understood due to the scarcity of bilingual texts. The earliest inscription in Meroitic writing dates from between 180-170 BCE. These hieroglyphics were found engraved on the temple of Queen Shanakdakhete. Meroitic Cursive is written horizontally, and reads from right to left like all Semitic orthographies.</p><br>
<p>By the 3rd century BCE, a new indigenous alphabet, the Meroitic, consisting of twenty-three letters, replaced Egyptian script. The Meroitic script is an alphabetic script originally derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs, used to write the Meroitic language of the Kingdom of Meroë/Kush. It was developed in the Napatan Period (about 700 - 300 BCE), and first appears in the 2nd century BCE. For a time, it was also possibly used to write the Nubian language of the successor Nubian kingdoms.</p><br>
<p>It is uncertain to which language family the Meroitic language is related. Claude Rilly has proposed that it, like the Nobiin language, belongs to the Eastern Sudanic branch of the Nilo-Saharan family. Kirsty Rowan suggests that Meroitic, like the Egyptian language, instead belongs to the Afro-Asiatic family. She bases this on its sound inventory and phonotactics, which are similar to those of the Afro-Asiatic languages and dissimilar from those of the Nilo-Saharan languages.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>The site of Meroë was brought to the knowledge of Europeans in 1821 by the French mineralogist Frédéric Cailliaud (1787–1869), who published an illustrated in-folio describing the ruins. His work included the first publication of the southernmost known Latin inscription.</p><br>
<p>As Margoliouth notes in the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica, small scale excavations occurred in 1834, led by Giuseppe Ferlini, who, as Margoliouth states, "discovered (or professed to discover) various antiquities, chiefly in the form of jewelry, now in the museums of Berlin and Munich." Margoliouth continues,</p><br>
<p>Troops were furnished by Sir Reginald Wingate, governor of the Sudan, who made paths to and between the pyramids, and sank shafts, &c. It was found that the pyramids were regularly built over sepulchral chambers, containing the remains of bodies either burned or buried without being mummified. The most interesting objects found were the reliefs on the chapel walls, already described by Lepsius, and containing the names with representations of queens and some kings, with some chapters of the Book of the Dead; some steles with inscriptions in the Meroitic language, and some vessels of metal and earthenware. The best of the reliefs were taken down stone by stone in 1905, and set up partly in the British Museum and partly in the museum at Khartoum. In 1910, in consequence of a report by Professor Sayce, excavations were commenced in the mounds of the town and the necropolis by J Garstang on behalf of the university of Liverpool, and the ruins of a palace and several temples were discovered, built by the Meroite kings.</p><br>
<h2>World Heritage listing</h2><br>
<p>In June 2011, the Archeological Sites of Meroë were listed by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites.</p><br>
<p>Isandlwana  is an isolated hill in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. It is located 105 mi north by northwest of Durban. The name is said to mean abomasum, the second stomach of the cow, because it reminded the Zulus of its shape.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>This mountain has historical significance. On 22 January 1879, Isandlwana was the site of the Battle of Isandlwana, where approximately 22,000 Zulu warriors defeated a contingent of approximately 1,350 British and Native troops in one of the first engagements of the Anglo-Zulu War. The force was largely wiped out by the Zulus under Ntshingwayo kaMahole Khoza. The battle remains the single greatest defeat for the British Army at the hands of a native army.</p><br>
<p>Isandlwana hill rises 10 mi southeast of Rorke&#39;s Drift, a ford on the Buffalo River, a tributary of the Tugela River.</p><br>
<p>Bunratty Castle is a large 15th-century tower house in County Clare, Ireland. It is located in the centre of Bunratty village , by the N18 road between Limerick and Ennis, near Shannon Town and its airport. The castle and the adjoining folk park are run by Shannon Heritage as tourist attractions.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The name Bunratty, Bun Raite (or possibly, Bun na Raite) in Irish, means "river basin" of the Ratty river. This river, alongside the castle, flows into the nearby Shannon estuary.</p><br>
<h3>Earlier structures</h3><br>
<p>The first recorded settlement at the site may have been a Norsemen settlement/trading camp reported in the Annals of the Four Masters to have been destroyed by Brian Boru in 977. According to local tradition, such a camp was located on a rise south-west of the current castle. However, since no actual remains of this settlement have yet been found, its exact location is unknown and its existence is not proven.</p><br>
<p>Around 1250, King Henry III of England granted the cantred or district of Tradraighe (or Tradree) to Robert De Muscegros, who in 1251 cut down around 200 trees in the King&#39;s wood at Cratloe. These may have been used to construct a motte and bailey castle, which would have been the first castle at Bunratty, but again the exact position of this is unknown. A later reference in the state papers, dating to 1253 gives de Muscegros the right to hold markets and an annual fair at Bunratty. It has thus been assumed that the site was the centre of early Norman control in south-eastern Clare. Early 19th-century scholars put the structure to the north-west of the current castle. However, when a hotel was constructed there in 1959, John Hunt excavated the area and thought the remains to be that of a gun emplacement from the Confederate Wars (see below).</p><br>
<p>These lands were later handed back to (or taken back by) King Henry III and granted to Thomas De Clare, a descendant of Strongbow in 1276. De Clare built the first stone structure on the site (the second castle). This castle was occupied from ca. 1278 to 1318 and consisted of a large single stone tower with lime white walls. It stood close to the river, on or near the site of the present Bunratty Castle. In the late 13th century, Bunrattty had about 1,000 inhabitants. The castle was attacked several times by the OBriens (or OBrians) and their allies. In 1284, while De Clare was away in England, the site was captured and destroyed. On his return, in 1287, De Clare had the site rebuilt and a 140 yd long fosse built around it. The castle was again attacked but it did not fall until 1318. In that year a major battle was fought at Dysert O&#39;Dea as part of the Irish Bruce Wars, in which both Thomas De Clare and his son Richard were killed. Lady De Clare, on learning this, fled from Bunratty to Limerick after burning castle and town. The De Clare family never returned to the area and the remains of the castle eventually collapsed. As the stones were likely used for other local construction works, no traces remain of this second castle.</p><br>
<p>In the 14th century, Limerick was an important port for the English Crown. To guard access via the Shannon estuary against attacks from the Irish, the site was once again occupied. In 1353, Sir Thomas de Rokeby led an English army to conquer the MacNamaras and MacCarthys. A new castle (the third) was built at Bunratty, but once again, its exact location is unknown. Local tradition holds that it stood at the site where the Bunratty Castle Hotel was later constructed. However, the new structure was hardly finished before being captured by the Irish. Documents show that in 1355, King Edward III of England released Thomas Fitzjohn Fitzmaurice from prison in Limerick. He had been charged with letting the castle fall into the hands of Murtough O’Brien whilst serving as a Governor (Captain) of Bunratty.</p><br>
<h3>Current structure</h3><br>
<p>The fourth castle, the present structure, was built by the MacNamara family after around 1425. Its builder may have been one Maccon Sioda MacNamara, chieftain of Clann Cuilein (i.e. the MacNamaras). He died before the castle was completed which happened under his son Sean Finn (died in 1467). At around 1500, Bunratty Castle came into the hands of the OBriens (or OBrians), the most powerful clan in Munster and later Earls of Thomond. They expanded the site and eventually made it their chief seat, moving it there from Ennis.</p><br>
<p>In 1558, the castle—now noted as one of the principal strongholds of Thomond—was taken by Thomas Radclyffe, the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland from Donal OBrien of Duagh, last King of Thomond (died 1579), and given to Donals nephew, Connor OBrien. Donogh OBrien, Conor&#39;s son, may have been the one to move the seat of the family from Clonroad (Ennis) to Bunratty. He made various improvements to the castle including putting a new lead roof on it.</p><br>
<p>During the Confederate Wars set off by the Irish Rebellion of 1641, Lord Forbes, commanding forces of the English Long Parliament, was allowed by the then Lord Barnabas O&#39;Brien to occupy Bunratty in 1646. Barnabas did not want to commit to either side in the struggle, playing off royalists, rebels and roundheads against each other. He left for England, where he joined King Charles. Defence of the castle, whose position allowed those holding it to blockade maritime access to Limerick (held by the Confederates) and the river Shannon, was in the hands of Rear-Admiral Penn, the father of William Penn, founder of Pennsylvania. After a long siege, the Confederates took the castle. Penn surrendered but was allowed to sail away to Kinsale.</p><br>
<p>Barnabas OBrien died in 1657, but had apparently leased out the castle to one "John Cooper", possibly the same person married to Máire ní Mahon of Leamaneh Castle, widow of another OBrien, Conor (died 1651).</p><br>
<p>The Studdert family left the castle (allowing it to fall into disrepair), to reside in the more comfortable and modern adjacent "Bunratty House" they had built in 1804. The reasons for the move are bound up in family arguments over the eldest son marrying his first cousin.</p><br>
<p>For some time in the mid-19th century, the castle was used as a barracks by the Royal Irish Constabulary. In the late 19th century, the roof of the Great Hall collapsed.</p><br>
<p>In 1956, the castle was purchased and restored by the 7th Viscount Gort, with assistance from the Office of Public Works. He reroofed the castle and saved it from ruin. The castle was opened to the public in 1960, sporting furniture, tapestries and works of art dating to around 1600.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Today, the castle is a major tourist attraction, along with "Bunratty Folk Park". Both the castle and Bunratty House are open to the public. The castle is famous for its medieval banquets, offered since 1963, at which the "Bunratty Castle Entertainers" perform today. "Bunratty Folk Park" is an open-air museum featuring around 30 buildings, including the Ardcroney Church Of Ireland church, which moved here and reopened in 1998.</p><br>
<p>The Louisiade Archipelago is a string of ten larger volcanic islands frequently fringed by coral reefs, and 90 smaller coral islands in Papua New Guinea.</p><br>
<p>It is located 200 km southeast of New Guinea, stretching over more than 160 km and spread over an ocean area of 26,000 km&sup2; between the Solomon Sea to the north and the Coral Sea to the south. The aggregate land area of the islands is about 1,871 km&sup2, with Vanatinai (Tagula) being the largest.</p><br>
<p>Rogeia, Samarai and Sariba lie closest to New Guinea, while Misima, Vanatinai, and Rossel islands lie further east.</p><br>
<h2>Government</h2><br>
<p>The archipelago is divided into the Local Level Government (LLG) areas Bwanabwana Rural (western part, with Basilaki), Louisiade Rural (central part, with Misima), and Yaleyamba (eastern part, with Rossell and Vanatinai islands). The LLG areas are part of Samarai-Murua District of Milne Bay. The seat of the Louisiade Rural LLG is Bwagaoia on Misima Island, the population center of the archipelago.</p><br>
<p>The seat of the Yaleyamba is changed every couple of years between Rambuso and Jingo (Rossell).</p><br>
<p>The seat of the Bwanabwana was Samarai from the Louisiade archipelago, but was recently transferred to the mainland of Papua New Guinea to the city of Alotau.</p><br>
<h2>Islands</h2><br>
<p>The Louisiade Archipelago consists of the following island groups and islands:</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The islands were discovered by a Spanish expedition led by Luis Váez de Torres in 1606, that was part of the Fernandez de Quiros fleet which had sailed from South America in search of Australia. The Torres expedition visited various islands including Basilaki Island, which he named San Buenaventura in July 1606. It is possible that Malay and Chinese sailors also visited the islands earlier. More than a century later, in 1768, Louis Antoine de Bougainville visited the islands and named them for Louis XV, the king of France. Visits were also paid by Admiral Bruni d&#39;Entrecasteaux in 1793 and Captain Owen Stanley in 1849.</p><br>
<p>The 1942 Battle of Coral Sea was fought nearby, after Japanese occupation in the same year. The Deboyne Islands were the site of the 1942 Raids on Deboyne.</p><br>
<h2>Rain forests</h2><br>
<p>The islands have a moist tropical climate, and are largely covered with tropical moist broadleaf forests. The Louisiade Archipelago rain forests form a distinct ecoregion, and are home to a number of endemic species, including several endemic trees (in genera Pandanus, Diospyros, and Hopea), as well as five endemic frog species, two endemic lizard species, and five endemic bird species.</p><br>
<p>The Battle of Mount Harriet was an engagement of the Falklands War, which took place on the night of 11/12 June 1982 between British and Argentine forces. It was one of three battles in a brigade-size operation on the same night.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>The British force consisted of 42 Commando (42 CDO), Royal Marines under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Nick Vauxs Royal Marines (he later became a general) with artillery support from a battery of 29 Commando Regiment, Royal Artillery. The 1st Battalion, Welsh Guards (1WG) and two companies from 40 Commando (40 CDO) were in reserve. HMS Yarmouth provided naval-gunfire support for the British forces. The Argentine defenders consisted of ex-Green Beret Captain Carlos Alberto Arroyos B Company from Lieutenant Colonel Diego Alejandro Soria&#39;s 4th Monte Caseros Infantry Regiment (RI 4).</p><br>
<p>On the night of 30 May, K Company of 42 CDO boarded three Sea King helicopters and moved forward of San Carlos to secure the commanding heights of Mount Kent—at 1,504 feet, the tallest of the peaks surrounding Stanley—where the D Squadron SAS Troops had already established a strong presence. However, when they arrived at their landing zone, some 3 kilometres (2 miles) behind the ridge of the mountain, the Marines were surprised to see the flashes and lines of tracer ammunition lighting up the night.</p><br>
<p>After a second clash with the 15 SAS men from 17 Boat Troop, the Argentine patrol (under Captain Tomas Fernandez 2nd Assault Section, 602 Commando Company) abandoned their hideouts among the boulders and caves on Mount Kent. By the end of May, D Squadron under Major Cedric Delves had gained Mount Kent at the cost of two wounded in Air Troop, and Boat Troop with Tactical HQ commenced patrolling Bluff Cove Peak, Mount Challenger and Estancia House, which they took with the loss of another two SAS wounded, including one Spanish-speaking warrant officer attached from 23rd Special Air Service Regiment (Reserve) that had joined Delves to properly interrogate the captured Argentine Army Special Forces. At the same time Captain Matthew Selfridges D Company scouting ahead of 3 PARA took Teal Inlet Settlement, at the cost of one wounded through an accidental discharge.</p><br>
<p>The rest of 42 Commando made a desperate march across the hills north of Mount Simon to reinforce Mounts Kent and Challenger overlooking Port Stanley. The weather conditions were atrocious, with the Marines marching through steep slippery hillocks and stone-runs to their objectives. Lou Armour was a corporal in J Company under Major Mike Norman:</p><br>
<p>Because of the weather and lack of equipment, we just had to carry all our heavy equipment back to Mount Kent, instead of being flown there. That was psychologically the toughest thing Id ever done. Youre walking and falling, walking and falling—some of the lads carrying up to a hundred pounds—and if you fell over, it took two guys to lift you back up. Then there was the lack of sleep, the wet, the cold, the diarrhea.</p><br>
<p>The final attack was preceded by many days of observation and nights of patrolling. Some night-fighting patrols were part of a deception plan to convince the Argentinians that the attack would come from a westerly direction. Other, more covert, patrols were to find a route through a minefield around the south of Mount Harriet. Sniping and naval artillery were used to harass the defenders and deny them sleep.</p><br>
<p>On 3 June, Lieutenant Chris Marwoods Reconnaissance Troop of 42 CDO on Mount Wall, accompanying the 3 Commando Brigade Forward Air Control team commanded by Flight Lieutenant Dennis Marshall-Hasdell, encountered an RI 4 fighting patrol (Second Lieutenant Lautaro Jiménez Corbaláns 3rd Platoon of B Company from Mount Harriet). The Recce Troop opened fire and two conscripts (Privates Celso Paez and Roberto Ledesma) were instantly killed, and an NCO (Corporal Nicolas Odorcic) went down, concussed when shot in the helmet by one of the Marine snipers.</p><br>
<p>This action drew attention to their exposed forward position, and Argentine reinforcements in the form of Second Lieutenant Marcelo Llambías Pravaz&#39;s 3rd Platoon from Two Sisters joined the action with a counterattack firing rifle-grenades. The Primary Forward Air Controller, commando-trained Flight Lieutenant Dennis Marshal-Hasdell, remembers:</p><br>
<p>We were separated from our heavy bergens with the radios and all our gear. The patrol was spread over quite a large area, with lots of shouting, noise and firing going on. The Marines abandoned all their equipment, and although no one told us, it became clear that we were to withdraw. With no information, and the likelihood of having to fight our way out, Dave Greedus and I decided to abandon our equipment, destroying as much as we could. The two radio sets (HF and UHF) were tough enough, but the HAZE unit of the laser target marker was designed to withstand the weight of a tank!</p><br>
<p>The laser target designator retrieved in the contact showed that the Royal Marines were seeking to destroy the Argentine bunkers on Mount Harriet with 1,000-pound GBU-16 Paveway II dropped by RAF Harriers. The next day, Lieutenant Tony Hornbys 10 (Defence) Troop re-occupied the Mount Wall observation post against no opposition.However, on the night of 5-6 June, Captain Andrés Ferreros 3rd Assault Section attacked Lieutenant Hornby&#39;s men on Mount Wall. After a sharp fight the Royal Marines were forced to withdraw.</p><br>
<h2>Prelude</h2><br>
<p>On 8 June crack reinforcements in the form of machine-gunners and mortarmen from the 1st Patricios Infantry Regiment, Regiment of Mounted Grenadiersand 17th Airborne Infantry Regimentarrived from Comodoro Rivadavia to support the 4th Infantry Regiment. On the night of 8–9 June, action on the outer defence zone flared when Lieutenant Mark Townsends 1 Troop (K Company, 42 CDO) probed Mount Harriet, killing two Argentines (Corporal Hipolito Gonzalez and Private Martiniano Gomez) from Second Lieutenant Jiménez Corbaláns 3rd Platoon. At the same time, two platoon-size fighting patrols from 45 Commando attempted the same on Two Sisters Mountain, but the Argentine RASIT ground surveillance radar on Mount Longdon was able to detect the 45 Commando platoons, and artillery fire dispersed the force.</p><br>
<p>According to the British, Lieutenant Townsend congratulated his men for having killed six Argentines that night, with Y Troop reportedly intercepting Argentine signals from the 4th Regiment that confirmed the loss of six Argentines at the hands of the Royal Marines.</p><br>
<p>Around dusk on 9 June, Lieutenant-Colonel Sorias men detected the presence of British troops that had taken up positions in a house on the southern approaches to Mount Harriet. The 4th Regiments Reconnaissance Platoon under Sub-Lieutenant Jorge Pasolli received instructions to move forward and clear the British from Port Harriet House and the Scots Guards Reconnaissance Platoon that had moved into the area was forced to vacate the building when the Argentines radioed in mortar fire support from the 120-mm Mortar Platoon on Mount Harriet and Pasolli&#39;s men attacked. The Scots Guards fired back at the Reconnaissance Platoon with two Bren machine guns but were forced to abandon their rucksacksand radiosand retreated to North Basin under heavy small arms and mortar fire that wounded three men including Sergeant Ian Allum.</p><br>
<p>Over a period of a week, the 4th Regiment defended the Harriet-Two Sisters sector from five Royal Marine platoon-sized attacks. Every time the Royal Marine Commandos got into the forward platoon positions, the officers, NCOs and conscripts, in general, counterattacked with rifles and cleared them out. They did not clear them out they were probing patrols.</p><br>
<p>On the morning of 11 June, the orders for the attack were given to 42 CDO by Vaux; K Company was ordered to attack the eastern end of the mountain, while L Company would attack the southern side an hour later, where it—if the mountain was secured—would then move north of Mount Harriet to Goat Ridge. J Company would launch a diversionary attack (code named Vesuvius) on the western end of Mount Harriet. 42 Commando attacked with 2 coys L and K with parts of 40 cdo in reserve who did not engage but watched the show. Hence they were defeated by 200 men not 600.</p><br>
<p>In the closing hours of 11 June, K and L Companies moved from their assembly area on Mount Challenger (which lay to the west of Mount Harriet) and made their way south, around their objective, across the minefield, to their respective start lines. As they moved around the feature in the dark, J company launched their very loud diversionary "attack" from the west.</p><br>
<h2>Battle</h2><br>
<p>The battle for Mount Harriet began on the evening of 11 June with a blistering naval bombardment (this bombardment we were told would be for 30 minutes but lasted probably 2 or 3 and I joked later that it only woke them up.) that killed two Argentines and wounded twenty-five. John Witheroe, one of the British war correspondents, later recalled the softening up fire:</p><br>
<p>The Argentines retaliated and the Artillery Observation Officer on Mount Kent, Captain Tomás Fox, directed 155mm artillery rounds that fell among the men of B Company, 7th Duke of Edinburgh&#39;s Own Gurkha Rifles in the area of Bluff Cove, seriously wounding three Gurkhas, including Lance Corporal Gyanendra Rai who nearly bled to death. Describing the moment he was injured, Rai, who was awarded the South Atlantic Medal, said: "I was absolutely convinced I would die. I was in severe pain. It was like someone had driven a four-pound sledge hammer through the side of my back."</p><br>
<p>Captain Peter Babbingtons K Company crossed their start line first and proceeded up the mountain undetected, knifing two sentries on the way. They remained undetected until they approached Sub-Lieutenant Mario Juarez 120-mm Mortar Platoon positions and decided to engage them. They were assisted in the advance by HMS Yarmouth, artillery, and mortars. During the engagement, Second Lieutenant Juarez was wounded and Corporal Laurence G Watts from K Company was killed. The supporting British artillery batteries and mortar crews fired over 1,000 rounds to keep the Argentines pinned down, and helped stop the defenders getting a proper aim at the Royal Marines.</p><br>
<p>About 150 metres from Sorias HQ, Corporal Steve Newland circled behind a group of Argentines (under First Lieutenant Jorge Alejandro Echeverria, the 4th Regiments intelligence officer) who were setting up an ambush. Although half a platoon of Argentine riflemen and a MAG were placed to engage anyone who broke cover, Newland darted out from under cover to charge the enemy machine gun. He grenaded two of the crew, but reaching the rear of the machine gun position, he was shot through both legs.</p><br>
<p>With the enemy machine gun out of action, Corporals Steve Newland, Mick Eccles and Chrystie Sharky Ward were able to clear the position with some help from Marine Barnett. The three corporals were awarded the Military Medal and Barnett the MID. Increasing numbers of Argentine soldiers, mainly shocked and dazed conscripts from RI 4s Recce Platoon, Reserve Platoon and 120-mm Mortar Platoon began to surrender, but several experienced officers (First Lieutenants Francisco Pablo DAloia, Esteban Guillermo Carlucci and Luis Oscar García) and several senior NCOs still fought on, according to their orders. The RI 4 Commanding Officer and First Lieutenant Rubén Cichiara, despite heavy British fire, linked up with B Company and ordered Arroyo&#39;s men to counterattack. The heavy machine gun teams, in general, stood in their positions continuing the fight.</p><br>
<p>Captain David Wheens L Company crossed their start line shortly after K Company and were almost immediately engaged by effective machine gun fire from Sub-Lieutenant Pablo Olivas platoon defending the lower southern slopes. These weapons would not be silenced until being hit by several MILAN anti-tank missiles and six 105mm artillery guns from Mount Challenger"L COMPANY&#39;S TASK WAS TO CLEAR AND SECURE THE WESTERN END OF THE MOUNT HARRIET FEATURE. STARTING AFTER K COMPANY ACROSS THE SAME START LINE, SURPRISE HAD BEEN LOST AND SO L COMPANY CAME UNDER EFFECTIVE FIRE FROM HEAVY MACHINE GUNS WITHIN 200 METRES OF THE START LINE TAKING THREE CASUALTIES ALMOST AT ONCE. CAPTAIN WHEEN, COMMANDING L COMPANY,</p><br>
<p>CALLED FOR MILAN TO FIRE AT THE MACHINE-GUN POSITIONS"., killing 3-4 of Olivas men. The L Company Marines took 5 hours to advance 600 metres in the face of reinforcements in the form of Sub-Lieutenant Eugenio César Bruny&#39;s RI 4 Platoon "THIS INVOLVED A FIGHTING ADVANCE OF ABOUT 600 METRES AND, AS EACH POSITION TOOK A SEPARATE TROOP OR SECTION ATTACK TO DEAL WITH IT, IT TOOK ABOUT FIVE HOURS TO COVER THE DISTANCE FROM THE START LINE. THE COMPANY FOUND THAT IT WAS BEST TO KEEP SKIRMISHING FORWARD THROUGHOUT THIS ADVANCE, BECAUSE GOING TO GROUND FOR ANY LENGTH OF TIME MEANT SITTING IN THE MIDDLE OF THE ENEMY ARTILLERY FIRE TASKS; HERE ARTILLERY AND SMALL ARMS CAUSED</p><br>
<p>A FURTHER 4 GUNSHOT AND 7 SHRAPNEL CASUALTIES.". and contend they took fire from at least seven machine guns that wounded five men, including the companys second-in-command and a signaller. British military historian Hugh Bicheno reports that the 4th Regiments passive night goggles were all with Arroyos B Company. Another 11 Marines in Wheen&#39;s Company were wounded by Argentine shellfire that Lieutenant-Colonel Soria personally brought down attempting to halt the British advance.</p><br>
<p>Before first light, Lieutenant Jerry Burnells 5 Troop of L Company proceeded to an outcrop of rocks towards Goat Ridge. As they advanced, the Royal Marine platoon came under heavy fire from Second Lieutenant Jiménez Corbalán 3rd Platoon, covering the Argentine retreat and were forced to withdraw under cover of machine guns pre-positioned behind them and further up the hill. The Troop took one casualty in this action. L Company requested mortar fire onto the Argentines; a mixture of HE and WP; then 5 Troop moved forward again, this time supported by 15 machine-guns. They took 3 prisoners although most of Jiménez-Corbalán men had withdrawn after losing two killed in the night fighting (Privates Juan José Acuña and Carlos Epifanio Casco). The platoon of Oscar Augusto Silva continued to resist from Goat Ridge throughout the morning of 12 June, and a determined conscript (Orlando Aylan), in a position just below the summit of Mount Harriet held up L Company with accurate shooting until killed by an 84mm anti-tank rocket fired at short range. At some time in the early morning darkness, as Second Lieutenant Jiménez Corbaláns 3rd platoon was making its way to new positions on Mount William, the officer was concussed and temporarily blinded when he set off a booby-trap while leading his men through a minefield. At great risk to themselves, Privates Teodoro Flores and Carlos Salvatierra rescued their platoon commander and were later decorated for their bravery.</p><br>
<h2>Aftermath</h2><br>
<p>The battle was a textbook example of good planning and use of deception and surprise, and a further step towards the main objective of Stanley. Two Royal Marines: Corporal Laurence G Watts and Acting Corporal Jeremy Smith were killed, and thirty were wounded, including fourteen wounded in L Company."2 COYS OF 42 CDO HAD TAKEN A REGIMENTAL POSITION FOR 2 KILLED AND 30 WOUNDED... WE HAD BEEN ORDERED TO BE PREPARED TO PRESS FORWARD THE ATTACK ONTO MOUNT TUMBLEDOWN AND MOUNT WILLIAM IF THE ENEMY FLED OUR INITIAL ATTACK, AND TIME ALLOWED. BY DAWN</p><br>
<p>IT WAS OBVIOUS THAT WE WERE IN NO POSITION TO ATTACK. WE WERE EXHAUSTED, OUT OF AMMO AND SUFFERING SIGNIFICANT CASUALTIES. MY 21C, A RADIO OPERATOR, MY TAC HQ MACHINE GUNNER AND ONE OF MY TROOP COMMANDERS HAD ALL BEEN SHOT, AND A FURTHER 10 ALSO WOUNDED. ANOTHER TROOP COMMANDER I DISCOVERED WAS SUFFERING FROM SHELLSHOCK". Another six Scots Guards and Gurkhas were wounded by Argentine artillery and mortar fire controllers on Mount Harriet. Eighteen Argentines were killed defending Mount Harriet, including those killed in the earlier patrol battles and softening up bombardments. Lance Corporal Tony Koleszar had the surprising experience of finding that two dead&#39; Argentine soldiers, whose boots he was trying to remove, were very much alive and jumped up to surrender. Some British reporters were thus misled into depicting the Argentineans as hapless teenage conscripts who caved in after the first shots were fired, but Royal Marine Warrant Officer 2 John Cartledge, who served with L Company during the battle, corrected them, saying the Argentines were good soldiers who had fought properly:They used the tactics which they had been taught along the way very well, they were quite prepared for an attack. They put up a strong fight from start to finish. They were also better equipped than we were. We had first generation night sights, which were large cumbersome pieces of equipment, while the Argentines had second-generation American night sights that were compact and so much better than what we had. The one deficiency which we exposed was that they had planned for a western end of the mountain attack and therefore had not bothered to extend their defensive positions to the eastern end, where we ultimately attacked.</p><br>
<p>One British general put their success down to his Marines&#39; skill and professionalism:What was needed was speed but not being bloody stupid. The Israelis would have done it much faster, but with many more casualties.</p><br>
<p>42 Commando captured 300 prisoners on Mount Harriet, and for the bravery shown in the attack, the unit was awarded one DSO, one Military Cross, four Military Medals, and eight men were mentioned in dispatches.</p><br>
<p>In 2017, David Wheen traveled to Argentina to meet Lautaro Jiménez-Corbalán. In an act of reconciliation, Wheen presented Jiménez-Corbalán with a British military essay and painting of the battle while receiving a copy of his book Malvinas en Primera Línea, that recounted the experiences of the 4th Regiment in the Falklands.</p><br>
<p>Jervis Bay  is a 102 km&sup2; oceanic bay and village on the south coast of New South Wales, Australia, said to possess the whitest sand in the world.</p><br>
<p>A 70 km&sup2; area of land around the southern headland of the bay is a territory of the Commonwealth of Australia known as the Jervis Bay Territory. The Australian Navy base, is in the Jervis Bay Territory between Jervis Bay Village and Greenpatch Point.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>In the Jervis Bay Territory on the southern side of the bay are the settlements of Greenpatch, Hyams Beach, and Bowen Island. From north to south on the New South Wales shore of the bay are Callala Beach, Callala Bay, Huskisson and Vincentia. Beecroft Peninsula, on the northern side of the bay, has been used as a bombing range by the Australian Navy. Point Perpendicular forms the southern end of the peninsula.</p><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>Jervis Bay is a drowned river valley and formed 15,000 years ago, at the end of the last ice age. The bay took on its present appearance around 4000 BC after the sea levels had risen 120 m, and as sand dune barriers created the southern peninsula. Much of the rock in Jervis Bay is part of the Sydney Basin sandstone formation, which is 280-225 million years old, although lower areas are overlain with Tertiary-era sediments.</p><br>
<p>Several features at Jervis Bay have been used as evidence that the Australian coast experienced many giant tsunamis prior to European colonisation.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Jervis Bay experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb), with average maximum temperatures varying from 16 °C in winter to 25 °C in summer tempered by sea breezes. The highest recorded temperature is 42.1 °C in January, and the lowest 4.7 °C in August.</p><br>
<p>Hot summer evenings are sometimes relieved by a front of rapidly moving cool air known as a southerly buster.</p><br>
<p>Rainfall is fairly evenly distributed throughout the seasons, with a bias to the first half of the year, due to prevailing easterlies. Short high intensity rainfall events may happen at any time of the year and can lead to local flooding. Jervis Bay also experiences thunderstorms during the warmer months bringing lightning, heavy rain and occasionally hail.</p><br>
<p>Yearly rainfall is influenced by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation.</p><br>
<h3>Environment</h3><br>
<p>Significant areas of the Jervis Bay natural environment are Booderee National Park, Jervis Bay National Park and the Jervis Bay Marine Park.</p><br>
<p>Some 158 km&sup2; of the land on both sides of the bay have been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA) because the coastal heathland supports the largest sub-population of the endangered eastern bristlebird, isolated from other sub-populations.</p><br>
<p>Jervis Bay has been recorded as having the whitest sand in the world.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological evidence at Burrill Lake, 30 kilometres south of Jervis Bay, shows Aboriginal occupation dating back 20,000 years.</p><br>
<p>Jervis Bay was sighted by Lieutenant James Cook aboard on 25 April 1770 (two days after Saint George&#39;s Day) and he named the southern headland Cape St George.</p><br>
<p>In August 1791 Lieutenant Richard Bowen, aboard the convict transport ship Atlantic, part of the Third Fleet, sailed into the bay and named it in honour of Admiral John Jervis, under whom he had served. In November 1791 Master Matthew Weatherhead entered the bay aboard, which had also been part of the Third Fleet, in order to undertake repairs to the ship.</p><br>
<p>In mid 1797, survivors of the wreck of passed through the area on foot, while undertaking an arduous trek of 600 kilometres in an attempt to get to Port Jackson (Sydney).</p><br>
<p>Explorer George Bass entered the bay on 10 December 1797 and named Bowen Island.</p><br>
<p>Alexander Berry&#39;s takeover of land in the Shoalhaven displaced Aboriginal people who were moved in 1822 to Wreck Bay. Smallpox and syphilis significantly reduced local populations.</p><br>
<p>The land now comprising the Jervis Bay Territory was surrendered by the state of New South Wales to the Commonwealth Government in 1915 to provide a seaport for the new Federal capital under construction at Canberra, which would be Australia’s only inland capital.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1960s, Australia&#39;s first nuclear power plant was proposed for the area, and a site was prepared. However, the project did not proceed.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Jervis Bay is well known for recreational fishing and scuba diving, with tour operators departing from Huskisson and amateurs using boat ramps at bayside towns and camp sites. Popular diving sites include The Labyrinths, Gorgonian Wall, Point Perpendicular, a submerged Fairey Firefly aeroplane, scallop beds, Middle Ground, Ten Fathom Reef, and Bowen Island.</p><br>
<p>Jervis Bay is also known for whale watching, because whale migration, both north and south, can be observed as the animals pass the entrance to the bay, frequently entering the sheltered waters to rest. The majority of whales sighted at Jervis Bay are humpbacks, which migrate along Australia&#39;s east coast from June to November. Southern right whales are also showing a slow but steady increase in recent years as they re-colonize former habitats, having been extensively hunted in the 19th and 20th centuries. Other species sighted have been false killer whales, orcas, minke whales and, on one occasion, a blue whale.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Tourism in Jervis Bay is one of the most important avenues of income for many of the local residents, with many businesses orienting themselves towards it. The Jervis Bay Visitors Information Centre is at Huskisson, and is part of the Lady Denman Maritime Museum and Gallery. Local Council-managed Visitor Information Centres are at Nowra and Ulladulla.</p><br>
<p>The Taymyr Peninsula  is a peninsula in the Far North of Russia, in the Siberian Federal District, that forms the northernmost part of the mainland of Eurasia. Administratively it is part of the Krasnoyarsk Krai Federal subject of Russia.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Taymyr Peninsula lies between the Yenisei Gulf of the Kara Sea and the Khatanga Gulf of the Laptev Sea.</p><br>
<p>Lake Taymyr and the Byrranga Mountains are located within the vast Taymyr Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>Cape Chelyuskin, the northernmost point of the Eurasian continent, is located at the northern end of the Taymyr Peninsula.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>The Nenets people, also known as Samoyeds, are an indigenous people in northern arctic Russia, and some live at the Taymyr Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>The Nganasan people are an indigenous Samoyedic people inhabiting central Siberia, including the Taymyr Peninsula. In the Russian Federation, they are recognized as being one of the Indigenous peoples of the Russian North. They reside primarily in the settlements of Ust-Avam, Volachanka, and Novaya in the Taymyrsky Dolgano-Nenetsky District of Krasnoyarsk Krai, with smaller populations residing in the towns of Dudinka and Norilsk as well. The isolated location of the Nganasan people enabled them to maintain shamanistic practices even in the 20th century.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>MMC Norilsk Nickel conducts mining operations in the area. The company conducts smelting operations in the area of the city of Norilsk, near the peninsula. The nickel ore concentrate and other products of the company are transported over a short railroad to the port city of Dudinka on the Yenisei River, and from there by boat to Murmansk and other ports.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The peninsula is the site of the last known naturally occurring muskox outside of North America, which died out about 2,000 years ago. They were successfully reintroduced in 1975. The population grew to 2,500 animals in 2002 increasing to 6,500 in 2010.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The coasts of the Taymyr Peninsula are frozen most of the year, between September and June on average. The summer season is short, especially on the shores of the Laptev Sea in the northeast. The climate in the interior of the peninsula is continental. Winters are harsh, with frequent blizzards and extremely low temperatures. The following data for Cape Chelyuskin provides an indication of the weather experienced in the northern part of the peninsula.</p><br>
<p>Qinghai Lake, Kokonor  or Tso Ngonpo  is the largest lake in the People&#39;s Republic of China. Located in Qinghai province on an endorheic basin, Qinghai Lake is classified as a saline and alkaline lake. Qinghai Lake has a surface area of 4,317 km&sup2 an average depth of 21 m, and a maximum depth of 25.5 m as measured in 2008. The current Chinese name "Qinghai," the older Mongolian name "Kokonor", and the Tibetan name translate to "Green Sea", "Blue Lake" and "Teal Sea", respectively. Qinghai Lake is located about 100 km west of the provincial capital of Xining  at 3,205 m above sea level in a hollow of the Tibetan plateau. Twenty-three rivers and streams empty into Qinghai Lake, most of them seasonal. Five permanent streams provide 80% of total influx.</p><br>
<p>The lake has fluctuated in size, shrinking over much of the 20th century, but has increased since 2004. There are five native fish species: The edible naked carp (Gymnocypris przewalskii, huángyú; 湟鱼), which is the most abundant in the lake, and four stoneloaches (Triplophysa stolickai, T. dorsonotata, T. scleroptera and T. siluroides). Other Yellow River fish species occurred in the lake, but they disappeared with the increasing salinity and basicity, beginning in the early Holocene, and eventually reaching the current salinity of c. 14 parts per thousand and pH of 9.3. Qinghai Lake became isolated from the Yellow River about 150,000 years ago.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Qinghai Lake is sandwiched between Hainan and Haibei Tibetan Autonomous Prefectures in northeastern Qinghai. The lake is located at the crossroads of several bird migration routes across Asia. Many species use Qinghai as an intermediate stop during migration. As such, it is a focal point in global concerns regarding avian influenza (H5N1), as a major outbreak here could spread the virus across Europe and Asia, further increasing the chances of a pandemic. Minor outbreaks of H5N1 have already been identified at the lake. At the tip of the peninsula on the western side of the lake are the "Bird Islands" (Cormorant Island and Egg Island), which have been bird sanctuaries of the Qinghai Lake Natural Protection Zone since 1997. The lake often remains frozen for three months continuously in winter.</p><br>
<p>There is an island in the western part of the lake with a temple and a few hermitages called "Mahādeva, the Heart of the Lake" (mTsho snying Ma hā de wa) which historically was home to a Buddhist monastery. No boat was used during summer, so monks and pilgrims travelled to and fro only when the lake froze over in winter. A nomad described the size of the island by saying that: "if in the morning a she-goat starts to browse the grass around it clockwise and its kid anti-clockwise, they will meet only in the night, which shows how big the island is." It is also known as the place where Gushri Khan and other Khoshut Mongols migrated to during the 1620s.</p><br>
<p>The lake is circumambulated by pilgrims, mainly Tibetan Buddhists, especially every Horse Year of the 12-year cycle. Przhevalsky estimated it would take about 8 days by horse or 15 walking to circumambulate the lake, but pilgrims report it takes about 18 days on horseback, and one took 23 days walking to complete the circuit.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), Qinghai Lake was called the West Sea, and substantial numbers of Han Chinese lived in the Xining valley. In the 17th century, Mongolic-speaking Oirat and Khalkha tribals migrated to Qinghai and became known as Qinghai Mongols. In 1724, the Qinghai Mongols led by Lobzang Danjin revolted against Chinas Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). The Yongzheng Emperor, after putting down the rebellion, stripped away Qinghais autonomy and imposed direct rule. Although some Tibetans lived around the lake, the Qing maintained an administrative division from the time of Güshi Khan between the Dalai Lama&#39;s western realm (slightly smaller than the current Tibet Autonomous Region) and the Tibetan-inhabited areas in the east. Yongzheng also sent Manchu and Han settlers to dilute the Mongols.</p><br>
<p>During Nationalist rule (1928-1949), Hans formed a majority of Qinghai Province&#39;s residents, although Huis ("Chinese Muslims") dominated the government. The Kuomintang Hui General Ma Bufang, having invited Kazakh Muslims, joined the Governor of Qinghai and other high ranking Qinghai and national government officials in conducting a joint Kokonuur Lake Ceremony to worship the God of the Lake. During the ritual, the Chinese national anthem was sung, all participants bowed to a Portrait of Kuomintang founder Dr. Sun Yat-sen, as well as to the God of the Lake. Participants, both Han and Muslim, made offerings to the god.</p><br>
<p>After the 1949 Chinese revolution, refugees from the 1950s Anti-Rightist Movement settled in the area west of Qinghai Lake. After the Chinese economic reform in the 1980s, drawn by new business opportunities, migration to the area increased, causing ecological stresses. Fresh grass production in Gangcha County north of the lake declined from a mean of 2,057 kg/ha to 1,271 kg/ha in 1987. In 2001, the State Forestry Administration of China launched the "retire cropland, restore grasslands" (退耕，还草) campaign and started confiscating Tibetan and Mongol pastoralists guns allegedly in order to preserve the endangered Przewalskis gazelle.</p><br>
<h2>Splitting</h2><br>
<p>Prior to the 1960s, 108 freshwater rivers emptied into the lake. As of 2003, 85% of the river mouths have dried up, including the lake&#39;s largest tributary, the Buha River. In between 1959 and 1982, there had been an annual water level drop of 10 cm, which was reversed at a rate of 10 cm/year between 1983 and 1989, but has continued to drop since. The Chinese Academy of Sciences reported in 1998 the lake was again threatened with loss of surface area due to livestock over-grazing, land reclamations and natural causes. Surface area decreased 11.7 percent in the period from 1908 to 2000. During that period, higher lake floor areas were exposed and numerous water bodies separated from the rest of the main lake. In the 1960s, the 48.9 km&sup2; Gahai Lake (尕海, pinyin: Gǎhǎi) appeared in the north; Shadao Lake (沙岛, pinyin: Shādǎo), covering an area of 19.6 km&sup2; to the northeast, followed in the 1980s, along with Haiyan Lake (海晏, pinyin: Hǎiyàn) of 112.5 km&sup2;. Another 96.7 km&sup2; daughter lake split off in 2004. In addition, the lake has now split into half a dozen more small lakes at the border. The water surface has shrunk by 312 km&sup2; over the last three decades.</p><br>
<p>The Sibuyan Sea is a small sea in the Philippines that separates the Visayas from the northern Philippine island of Luzon.</p><br>
<p>It is bounded by the island of Panay to the south, Mindoro to the west, Masbate to the east, and to the north Marinduque and the Bicol Peninsula of Luzon Island.</p><br>
<p>The Sibuyan Sea is connected to the Sulu Sea via the Tablas Strait in the west, the South China Sea via the Isla Verde Passage in the northwest, and the Visayan Sea via the Jintotolo Channel in the south-east. The Romblon Islands lie within the Sibuyan Sea.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The sea was the site of the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea on October 24, 1944 where the Japanese battleship Musashi was sunk and other ships were damaged.</p><br>
<p>Lake Nipissing  is a lake in the Canadian province of Ontario. It has a surface area of 873.3 km&sup2, a mean elevation of 196 m above sea level, and is located between the Ottawa River and Georgian Bay. Excluding the Great Lakes, Lake Nipissing is the third-largest lake in Ontario. It is relatively shallow for a large lake, with an average depth of only 4.5 m. The shallowness of the lake makes for many sandbars along the lake&#39;s irregular shoreline. The lake has many islands most of which are protected under the Protection of Significant Wetlands scheme, controlled by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry.</p><br>
<p>The largest population centre on the lakes shoreline is the city of North Bay. North Bay sits along the lakes northeastern shoreline. Other notable towns include Callander (south of North Bay along Highway 11). The larger towns toward the western end of the lake are Sturgeon Falls, Garden Village, Cache Bay and Lavigne.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and history</h2><br>
<p>Lake Nipissing drains into Georgian Bay, which is a part of Lake Huron, via the French River. Lake Nipissing lies about 25 km northwest of Algonquin Provincial Park. The French fur trader Étienne Brûlé was the first European to visit the lake in 1610. Jean Nicolet, another French trader and explorer had a "cabin and trading-house" for eight or nine years living among the Indians on the shores of Lake Nipissing until 1633 when he was recalled to Quebec to become Commissary and Indian Interpreter for the "Company of the Hundred Associates." The first permanent European settlement on the lake dates from around 1874 with a trading post of the Hudson&#39;s Bay Company on the northwest corner in what is now Sturgeon Falls. In 1882 the North-West Mounted Police established their presence on the north east shore.</p><br>
<p>The lake contains over 40 different species of fish. Numerous sport fishing lodges dot the main shoreline and can also be found on several of Nipissings many islands. Most anglers target walleye, smallmouth bass, muskie, and northern pike. For various reasons, largely social, numerous stocking associations are engaged in attempts to manage the lakes walleye population.</p><br>
<p>The lake&#39;s name means "big water" in the Algonquin language. The name Nipissing was also given to many places in the area, notably the Township of Nipissing, Nipissing District, and Nipissing University.</p><br>
<p>In the days of fur trade, coureur des bois and later voyageurs travelled through the lake by canoe via the Mattawa and French rivers. When the fur trade started to decline in the 1880s, logging became the main economic activity. After World War I, the primary economic activity became tourism and recreation, although logging still contributes a significant economic stimulus to the area.</p><br>
<p>Unlike most lakes in Ontario, Lake Nipissing contains two volcanic pipes, which are the Manitou Islands and Callander Bay. The volcanic pipes formed by the violent, supersonic eruption of deep-origin volcanoes. Lake Nipissing lies in the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben, a Mesozoic era rift valley that formed 175 million years ago.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The lake is home to an abundance of flora and fauna:</p><br>
<p>white pine is significant, however, broadleaf trees such as aspen, ash, birch, maple and oak predominate some of the larger islands. Juniper, sumac, scrub oak, oak ferns and poison ivy can also be found. As well as much prized fish species, Nipissing wildlife includes moose, beaver, bald eagle, ospreys and turtles.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>The lakeshore and islands are densely covered with broadleaved trees. Some of the larger islands on the lake such as Garden Island are almost exclusively broadleaf with maple, oak and dogwood. Many trees species can be found on and around the lake including:</p><br>
<p>White pine which dominates the smaller rocky islands on the lake.</p><br>
<p>Ash (black, mountain, red and white)</p><br>
<p>Aspen (trembling and largetooth)</p><br>
<p>Beech</p><br>
<p>Birch (white and yellow)</p><br>
<p>Dogwood</p><br>
<p>Ironwood</p><br>
<p>Maple (silver, striped and sugar)</p><br>
<p>Oak (burr and red)</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>Fish - the lake is famous for the plethora of fish and the sport they provide. Of the 44 fish species to be found in Lake Nipissing, the significant include:</p><br>
<p>Northern pike</p><br>
<p>Muskie (clear or barred and spotted)</p><br>
<p>Walleye</p><br>
<p>Smallmouth bass</p><br>
<p>Yellow perch</p><br>
<p>Cisco or lake herring</p><br>
<p>Whitefish</p><br>
<p>two species deemed to be at risk by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry; the northern brook lamprey and lake sturgeon</p><br>
<p>Mammals - Many mammals frequent the shores and islands of the lake, including:</p><br>
<p>Moose</p><br>
<p>Wolf</p><br>
<p>Black bear</p><br>
<p>Marten</p><br>
<p>Red squirrel</p><br>
<p>Beaver</p><br>
<p>Muskrat</p><br>
<p>Hare</p><br>
<p>Birds - These separate naturally into resident or visiting species.</p><br>
<p>Bald eagle</p><br>
<p>Osprey</p><br>
<p>Great blue heron</p><br>
<p>Common loon</p><br>
<p>Great horned owl</p><br>
<p>and a huge variety of ducks and geese</p><br>
<p>The Île Saint-Louis is one of two natural islands in the Seine river, in Paris, France .</p><br>
<p>The Île Saint-Louis is connected to the rest of Paris by four bridges to both banks of the river and to the Île de la Cité by the Pont Saint-Louis. This island was formerly used for the grazing of market cattle and stocking wood.</p><br>
<p>The island is located within the 4th arrondissement of Paris and has a population of 4,453.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>One of France&#39;s first examples of urban planning, it was mapped and built from end to end during the 17th-century reigns of Henri IV and Louis XIII. A peaceful oasis of calm in the busy Paris centre, this island has only narrow one-way streets, the métro station of Sully-Morland, and two bus stops. Most of the island is residential, but there are several restaurants, hotels, shops, cafés and ice cream parlours at street level, as well as one large church. Artists and intellectuals abound within its perimeters. Ms. Núria Solé, a renowned Catalan artist and sculptor, has lived on rue de Bretonvilliers for eight years.</p><br>
<p>The Île Saint-Louis, an elegant neighborhood, was actually two natural islets in the Seine River – the Île Notre Dame (which was the larger of the two) and the Île aux Vaches (a small islet used as a cow pasture) – joined together in 1614. The Île Saint-Louis is named after Louis IX (Saint Louis), King of France from 8 November 1226 to 25 August 1270.</p><br>
<p>At the start of the 16th century, the island was not yet named after King Louis IX, who was canonized in 1297, less than 30 years after his death.</p><br>
<p>It was King Louis XIII, who reigned from 1610 (age 8) to 1643, along with the queen mother Marie de Médicis, who decided at the start of the 17th century to implement a great urban plan first devised by his father, King Henri IV, which transformed the two Îles.</p><br>
<p>The responsibility for the development of the Île Saint-Louis in the 17th century was given to Christophe Marie, general builder for Public Works. In exchange for his pro bono work, he was granted a license to build elegant residences. Along with the nobles, aristocrats, wealthy businessmen and politicians came here to live away from the noise of the inner city. Marie went into partnership with two builders, Lugles Poulletier and François Le Regrattier, and chose Louis Le Vau as architect. In 1614 the ditch between the two islets was filled in; and townhouses were constructed between 1620 and 1650. The island project, an architectural revolution, used a carefully drafted urban plan for the first time in Paris. The urban planning was revolutionary, especially for Paris; it was only under Napoleon III, over 200 years later, that urban planning was implemented citywide. The option to build by just following the topography of the land was no longer available. The new streets were built straight and perpendicular to a central axis. So that the risk of fires was reduced, stone and slate replaced wood, plaster and thatched roofs.</p><br>
<p>For the first time, dwellings were orientated towards the outside, rather than towards an inner courtyard, with windows and balconies looking out to river views. Courtyards were narrow, with the usual gardens almost nonexistent. Aimed towards wealthy denizens, much effort was focused on the interior design of the apartments. The majority of the façades were rather sober, providing charm to the neighborhood. Only a few façades were decorated with heads or faces (mascrons). Only a few of the balconies were adorned with ornate ironwork. The few monumental doors that horse-drawn coaches rushed through hinted at the wealth of the owners. Along with Faubourg Saint-Germain and Le Marais, Île Saint-Louis was one of the most affluent neighborhoods in 17th and 18th century Paris.</p><br>
<p>It is still today a quiet and respectable district, with apartments costing up to $4 million. It is one of the most authentic and unaffected 17th- and 18th-century neighborhoods in Paris.</p><br>
<p>First constructed in 1622, the Eglise Saint-Louis-en-l&#39;Île, an atmospheric building designed by François Le Vau, has a vast, stunning wooden door decorated with angels. Inside, it is impressive and immense; the ornate Baroque style interior is a stark contrast to the sober exterior.</p><br>
<p>The Pont Saint-Louis entertainers (i.e., jazz bands, jugglers and mimes) perform on a small bridge that connects Île Saint-Louis with Île de la Cité.</p><br>
<p>One mansion built in the 1600s is today the refined and elegant Hôtel des Deux-Îles, offering 17 modern rooms, with the original blue earthenware tiles on the bathroom walls. Another large hôtel particulier, the Hôtel Lambert, was owned by Marquis du Chatelet, a notable aristocrat. The Hôtel Lauzun was its competitor.</p><br>
<p>Until the Revolution, Île Saint-Louis was often inhabited by aristocrats and nobles. This is recognized by the ornate hôtels particuliers and apartments from the 17th and 18th century.</p><br>
<h2>Bridges that connect to the Île</h2><br>
<p>Pont Saint-Louis from the Île de la Cité</p><br>
<p>Pont de la Tournelle from the Rive Gauche</p><br>
<p>Pont Louis-Philippe from the Rive Droite</p><br>
<p>Pont Marie from the Rive Droite</p><br>
<p>Pont Sully from the Rive Droite and the Rive Gauche.</p><br>
<p>Samar is the third largest island in the Philippines. Located in eastern Visayas, within central Philippines. The island is divided into three provinces: Samar province , Northern Samar province, and Eastern Samar province. These three provinces, along with the provinces on the nearby islands of Leyte and Biliran are part of the Eastern Visayas region.</p><br>
<p>Samar is the easternmost island in Visayas. The island is separated from Leyte by the San Juanico Strait, which at its narrowest point is only about 2 km across. This strait is crossed by the San Juanico Bridge. Samar lies southeast of the Bicol Peninsula on Luzon, the country&#39;s largest island; the San Bernardino Strait separates the two. To the south of Samar is the Leyte Gulf, the site of the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the most decisive naval battles during the Second World War. The gulf opens out into the Philippine Sea, found to the east of Samar and is part of the Pacific Ocean.</p><br>
<p>On June 19, 1965, through Republic Act No. 4221, Samar was divided into three provinces: Northern Samar, Western Samar and Eastern Samar with Catarman, Catbalogan City and Borongan City as its capital, respectively. Thus, June 19 is a regular non-working local holiday of the said provinces</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Samar was the first island of the Philippines sighted by the Spanish expedition of Ferdinand Magellan on 16 March 1521 after having left the Mariana Islands. Realizing he had arrived at an archipelago he charted the islands as San Lazaro (Saint Lazarus in Spanish) because they were sighted on Lazarus Saturday. Even if Samar was the first island of the Philippines sighted by Magellan, he did not land and continued sailing south till, after anchoring at Suluan Island, he finally landed on Homonhon Island on 17 March 1521.</p><br>
<p>Historian William Henry Scott wrote that a “Samar datu by the name of Iberein was rowed out to a Spanish vessel anchored in his harbor in 1543 by oarsmen collared in gold; while wearing on his own person earrings and chains.”</p><br>
<p>The San Bernardino Strait  is a strait in the Philippines, connecting the Samar Sea with the Philippine Sea. It separates the Bicol Peninsula of Luzon island from the island of Samar in the south.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first reference to the Spanish and the San Bernardino Strait is during the 1543–1545 expedition of Ruy Gomez de Villalobos, who was sent out by the Viceroy of Mexico under orders from the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V to establish a Spanish colony near the Portuguese-occupied Spice Islands of Moluccas.Wiliam Henry Scott (1985)</p><br>
<p>Cracks in the parchment curtain and other essays in Philippine history. New Day Publishers., p 49–52</p><br>
<p>During this ill-fated expedition, one ship alone, the little San Juan de Letran with a skeleton crew of only 20 men, logged more than 5,000 kilometres in Philippine waters, including those of the San Bernardino Strait, and the San Juanico Strait between Samar and Leyte.</p><br>
<p>The San Juan also completely circumnavigated the island of Mindanao, then tried to reach Mexico but was blown back to the Marianas by a storm in the North Pacific. It made its way back to the Filipinas (as Samar and Leyte had been named by Villalobos), and on January 3, 1544 ran aground in the treacherous currents of the San Bernardino Strait "just as dozens of Spanish vessels were to do for the next three centuries".</p><br>
<h3>Second World War</h3><br>
<p>During the Battle of Leyte Gulf, Imperial Japanese Admiral Kurita took his main battleship force through the strait to reach the American transports anchored in Leyte Gulf, but withdrew after the Battle off Samar.</p><br>
<p>Mount Othrys  is a mountain in central Greece, in the northeastern part of Phthiotis and southern part of Magnesia. Its highest summit, Gerakovouni, situated on the border of Phthiotis and Magnesia, is 1,726 m above sea level. The population density in the mountains is low: there are a few small villages, including Anavra in the northwest, Kokkotoi in the northeast, Palaiokerasia in the south and Neraida in the southwest. The length from west to east is about 35 km and the width from north to south is about 25 km. The Pagasetic Gulf lies to the northeast, and the Malian Gulf lies to the south. The summit Gerakovouni lies 19 km south of Almyros, 27 km northeast of Lamia and 44 km southwest of Volos. The upper ranges of the mountain are rocky, and there are forests in the lower ranges. The entire area is also a parkland. The main source of rock is ophiolite.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>On February 5, 1991, a Lockheed C-130H Hercules 748 crashed into the mountain, killing 63 people.</p><br>
<h2>Mythology</h2><br>
<p>In Greek mythology Mount Othrys was the base of Kronos and the other Titans during the ten-year war with the Olympian Gods known as the Titanomachy. It was also the birthplace of the elder gods, Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades and Poseidon. It was assaulted by the Olympians, led by Kronos&#39; son Zeus. Zeus later overthrew his father and gained dominion in all of the heavens and the earth.</p><br>
<h2>Other</h2><br>
<p>The ship Mount Othrys is named after this mountain.</p><br>
<p>Othrys is the first layer of the outer plane Carceri in the Planescape campaign setting for Dungeons & Dragons</p><br>
<p>In the Rick Riordan series Percy Jackson & the Olympians, Mount Othrys had been transported to Mount Tamalpais in Marin County, California, and features in the story as a phantom fortress that slowly but surely became solid as the Titans gained in power. The Titan Atlas was imprisoned atop the mountain to hold up the sky again in the third book.</p><br>
<p>Diamond Head is a volcanic tuff cone on the Hawaiian island of Oahu and known to Hawaiians as Lēahi, most likely from lae browridge, promontory plus ahi tuna because the shape of the ridgeline resembles the shape of a tuna&#39;s dorsal fin. Its English name was given by British sailors in the 19th century, who mistook calcite crystals on the adjacent beach for diamonds.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Diamond Head is part of the system of cones, vents, and their associated eruption flows that are collectively known to geologists as the Honolulu Volcanic Series, eruptions from the Koolau Volcano that took place long after the volcano formed and had gone dormant. The Honolulu Volcanic Series is a series of volcanic eruption events that created many of Oahu&#39;s well-known landmarks, including Punchbowl Crater, Hanauma Bay, Koko Head, and Mānana Island in addition to Diamond Head.</p><br>
<p>Diamond Head, like the rest of the Honolulu Volcanic Series, is much younger than the main mass of the Koolau Mountain Range. While the Koolau Range is about 2.6 million years old, Diamond Head is estimated to be about 500,000 to 400,000 years old.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The interior and adjacent exterior areas were the home to Fort Ruger, the first United States military reservation on Hawaii. Only a National Guard facility and Hawaii State Civil Defense remain in the crater. An FAA air traffic control center was in operation from 1963 to 2001.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Diamond Head is a defining feature of the view known to residents and tourists of Waikīkī, and also a USA National Natural Monument. The volcanic tuff cone is a State Monument. While part of it is closed to the public and serves as a platform for antennas used by the USA government, the craters proximity to Honolulus resort hotels and beaches makes the rest of it a popular destination.</p><br>
<p>A 0.75-mile (1.1-km) hike leads to the edge of the crater&#39;s rim. Signs at the trailhead say that the hike takes 1.5–2 hours round-trip, and recommends that hikers bring water. Although not difficult, the signs also say that the hike is not a casual one: the mostly unpaved trail winds over uneven rock, ascends 74 steps, then through a tunnel and up another steep 99 steps. Next is a small lighted tunnel to a narrow spiral staircase (43 steps) inside a coastal artillery observation platform built in 1908. From the summit above the observation platform both Waikīkī and the Pacific Ocean can be seen in detail. It is a short but steep hike – it is a 170 m (560 ft) elevation gain for a total elevation of 232 m (762 ft). There is a water fountain near the bathrooms at the foot of the trail in case you want to hydrate before the hike or fill an empty bottle. The park closes at 6:00 pm and signs posted indicate that you are not allowed to head up the trail after 4:30 pm. A downloadable certificate is available to those who complete the climb.</p><br>
<h2>National Natural Landmark</h2><br>
<p>In 1968, Diamond Head was declared a National Natural Landmark. The crater, also called Diamond Head Lookout was used as a strategic military lookout in the early 1900s. Spanning over 475 acres (190 ha) (including the crater’s interior and outer slopes), it served as an effective defensive lookout because it provides panoramic views of Waikīkī and the south shore of Oahu.</p><br>
<p>The Diamond Head Lighthouse, a navigational lighthouse built in 1917 is directly adjacent to the crater&#39;s slopes. In addition, a few pillboxes are located on Diamond Head’s summit.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Diamond Head appears on an 80-cent air mail stamp issued in 1952 to pay for shipping orchids to the mainland of the USA</p><br>
<p>A 1975 televised game show, The Diamond Head Game was set at Diamond Head.</p><br>
<p>Walden Pond is a lake in Concord, Massachusetts in the United States. A famous example of a kettle hole, it was formed by retreating glaciers 10,000–12,000 years ago. The pond is protected as part of Walden Pond State Reservation, a 335 acre state park and recreation site managed by the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation. The reservation was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1962 for its association with the writer Henry David Thoreau , whose two years living in a cabin on its shore provided the foundation for his most famous work, Walden; or, Life in the Woods.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Walden Pond Reservation is located south of Massachusetts Route 2 and (mostly) west of Massachusetts Route 126 in Concord and Lincoln, Massachusetts. The reservation is 335 acre in size,</p><br>
<h3>History</h3><br>
<p>The writer, transcendentalist, and philosopher Henry David Thoreau lived on the northern shore of the pond for two years starting in the summer of 1845. His account of the experience was recorded in Walden; or, Life in the Woods, and made the pond famous. The land at that end was owned by Thoreaus friend and mentor, Ralph Waldo Emerson, who let Thoreau use it for his experiment. Thoreau is credited with encouraging a respect for nature at an environmentally degraded site. The Concord Museum contains the bed, chair, and desk from Thoreaus cabin.</p><br>
<p>Bostons "Ice King," Frederic Tudor, harvested ice yearly on Walden Pond for export to the Caribbean, Europe, and India. In his journal, Thoreau philosophized upon the wintry sight of Tudors ice harvesters: "The sweltering inhabitants of Charleston and New Orleans, of Madras and Bombay and Calcutta, drink at my well... The pure Walden water is mingled with the sacred water of the Ganges."</p><br>
<p>An amusement park with swings, concession stands and an event hall, located at the western end of the pond, burned down in 1902 and was never rebuilt.</p><br>
<p>Descendants of Emerson and other families deeded the land around the pond to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in 1922. In 1961, the Middlesex County Commissioners, then managing the land, proposed leveling a significant portion of the preserve for a parking lot and other "improvements." An acre of woodland had been leveled for access to the public beach when the Commissioners were sued to stop the destruction of the existing environment. Judge David A. Rose, sitting in the Massachusetts Superior Court, ruled that Walden’s deed donating the property to the Commonwealth required preservation of the land and barred further development. The decision received national recognition, and Judge Rose received hundreds of letters from school children across the country thanking him for saving the land. Walden Pond became part of the state parks system in 1975.</p><br>
<p>In 1977, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts installed a porous pavement parking area at Walden Pond as a special technology transfer demonstration project, following methodology generated by the USA Environmental Protection Agency in 1972. The porous pavement still functions decades later, despite experiencing more freeze-thaw cycling than most other parts of the world.</p><br>
<p>Recording artist Don Henley initiated The Walden Woods Project in 1990 to prevent the area around Walden Pond from being developed.</p><br>
<h2>Legend</h2><br>
<h3>Formation, from "The Ponds" (Walden, 1854)</h3><br>
<p>While living in Walden Woods for two years beginning in 1845, Henry David Thoreau contemplated Walden Ponds features. In "The Ponds" section of Walden, published in 1854, Thoreau extols the waters physical properties. He details its unparalleled water quality; its clarity, color, and temperature; its unique animal life (aquatic, bird, and mammal); its rock formations and bed; and especially, its mirror-like surface properties.</p><br>
<p>Thoreau contemplates the source of the pristine water body in the woods. He observes that it had no visible inlet or outlet, and considers the possibility of an unidentified spring at the bottom. Noting the kettle landform&#39;s ramparts and resilient shore, he concludes that a unique, natural geologic event formed the site, while recognizing local myths:Some have been puzzled to tell how the shore became so regularly paved. My townsmen have all heard the tradition -- the oldest people tell me that they heard it in their youth -- that anciently the Indians were holding a pow-wow upon a hill here, which rose as high into the heavens as the pond now sinks deep into the earth, and they used much profanity, as the story goes, though this vice is one of which the Indians were never guilty, and while they were thus engaged the hill shook and suddenly sank, and only one old squaw, named Walden, escaped, and from her the pond was named. It has been conjectured that when the hill shook these stones rolled down its side and became the present shore. It is very certain, at any rate, that once there was no pond here, and now there is one; and this Indian fable does not in any respect conflict with the account of that ancient settler whom I have mentioned, who remembers so well when he first came here with his divining-rod, saw a thin vapor rising from the sward, and the hazel pointed steadily downward, and he concluded to dig a well here. As for the stones, many still think that they are hardly to be accounted for by the action of the waves on these hills; but I observe that the surrounding hills are remarkably full of the same kind of stones, so that they have been obliged to pile them up in walls on both sides of the railroad cut nearest the pond; and, moreover, there are most stones where the shore is most abrupt; so that, unfortunately, it is no longer a mystery to me. I detect the paver. If the name was not derived from that of some English locality -- Saffron Walden, for instance -- one might suppose that it was called originally Walled-in Pond.</p><br>
<h3>Romanticism, from "The Ponds" (Walden, 1854)</h3><br>
<p>Also in "The Ponds," Thoreau describes incorporeal experiences around the water, both experiences related to him by others and his own. Thoreau, who was well read and a transcendentalist, and therefore presumably intimately familiar with Romanticism, relates the stories in a way that could be argued to interpret or reveal the pond as the locale of the Grail Legend in the Americas. In the following passage, Walden Ponds vanishing treasure chest echoes the protagonists fleeting encounter with the grail in Wolfram von Eschenbachs German romance Parzival, and the ponds canoe is reminiscent of the boat in A Fairy Tale. (Goethe, who was a Classicist, not a Romanticist, positively viewed Parzival.) Thoreau wrote:An old man who used to frequent this pond nearly sixty years ago, when it was dark with surrounding forests, tells me that in those days he sometimes saw it all alive with ducks and other water-fowl, and that there were many eagles about it. He came here a-fishing, and used an old log canoe which he found on the shore. It was made of two white pine logs dug out and pinned together, and was cut off square at the ends. It was very clumsy, but lasted a great many years before it became water-logged and perhaps sank to the bottom. He did not know whose it was; it belonged to the pond. He used to make a cable for his anchor of strips of hickory bark tied together. An old man, a potter, who lived by the pond before the Revolution, told him once that there was an iron chest at the bottom, and that he had seen it. Sometimes it would come floating up to the shore; but when you went toward it, it would go back into the deep water and disappear...When I first paddled a boat on Walden, it was completely surrounded by thick and lofty pine and oak woods, and in some of its coves grapevines had run over the trees next the water and formed bowers under which a boat could pass. The hills which form its shores are so steep, and the woods on them were then so high, that, as you looked down from the west end, it had the appearance of an amphitheater for some kind of sylvan spectacle. I have spent many an hour, when I was younger, floating over its surface as the zephyr willed, having paddled my boat to the middle, and lying on my back across the seats, in a summer forenoon, dreaming awake, until I was aroused by the boat touching the sand, and I arose to see what shore my fates had impelled me to; days when idleness was the most attractive and productive industry.</p><br>
<h2>Activities and amenities</h2><br>
<p>In addition to being a popular swimming destination in the summer, Walden Pond State Reservation provides opportunities for boating, hiking, picnicking, and fishing. In 2015, Massachusetts state conservation officials warned swimmers to stay out of Walden Pond, "after a routine test there revealed a high level of potentially dangerous bacteria." These bacteria included enterococcous, "a pathogen that in severe cases can cause digestive ailments including vomiting and diarrhea." There is a replica of Thoreau&#39;s cabin available for viewing. The reservation is open year-round for day use, but does not allow camping overnight.</p><br>
<h2>Influences</h2><br>
<p>Walden Pond inspired the naming of the American film company Walden Media and is a frequent subject of professional and amateur photographers.</p><br>
<p>C-SPAN broadcast an episode of its American Writers series from the shores of Walden Pond in 2001.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The pond and reservation are located to the south of state highway MA-2 / MA-2A. Highway MA-126 passes through the reservation. The Fitchburg Line of the MBTA Commuter Rail passes west of the pond; however, the nearest station is in Concord center, 1.4 miles northwest of the reservation.</p><br>
<p>Voronezh  is a river in Tambov, Lipetsk, and Voronezh oblasts in Russia, a left tributary of the Don. The Voronezh River is 342 km long, with a drainage basin of 21,600 km&sup2;. It freezes up in the first half of December and stays under the ice until late March. The lower reaches of the river are navigable. The cities of Lipetsk and Voronezh are along the Voronezh River.</p><br>
<p>Going upstream, it leaves the Don south of Voronezh and goes north parallel and east of the Don for about 150 km. West of Michurinsk it swings east and splits into the Lesnoy and Polny Voronezh Rivers ("Forest and Field Voronezh"). These go north about 75 km to the border of Ryazan Oblast. To the north are tributaries of the Oka River. To the east are the basins of the south-flowing Bityug River which joins the Don and the north-flowing Tsna River (Moksha basin) which reaches the Oka via the Moksha.</p><br>
<p>The river is named for an earlier town destroyed by the Mongol invasion, whose name in turn was borrowed from a place name in the Principality of Chernigov, derived from the personal name Voroneg. From the 1650s the Belgorod Line of forts ran along the Voronezh. In 1706 Peter the Great built boats along the Voronezh and sailed them down the Don to attack the Turkish fortress of Azov.</p><br>
<p>Tsna  is a river in the Tambov and Ryazan oblasts of Russia, the left tributary of the Moksha . The length of the river is 451 km. The catchment area is 21500 km². The height of the mouth is 86 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>On the river are the cities of Kotovsk, Tambov, Morshansk, Sasovo.</p><br>
<p>It begins in the Sampursky District under the name of Wet Warmer.</p><br>
<h2>Confluences</h2><br>
<p>*22 km: Aleshnya</p><br>
<p>*31 km: Vialla</p><br>
<p>*67 km: Vysha (Knox)</p><br>
<p>*74 km: Aza</p><br>
<p>*98 km: Shacha</p><br>
<p>*187 km: Kashma</p><br>
<p>*200 km: Piterka</p><br>
<p>*222 km: Kersha</p><br>
<p>*246 km: Chelnovaya</p><br>
<p>*365 km: Lesnoy Tambov</p><br>
<p>*375 km: Lipovica</p><br>
<p>*381 km: river without a name, near. Vorontsovki</p><br>
<p>*386 km: Karian</p><br>
<p>*406 km: the stream of Antiushevka</p><br>
<p>*420 km: Osinovka</p><br>
<p>*425 km: Ponzari</p><br>
<p>Karian - length 48 km, Lipovitsa - 52 km, Lesnoy Tambov - 89 km, Chelnaya 121 km, Kersha with Khmelina - 86 and 49 km, Kashma with Bolshoy and Small Lomovis - respectively 111, 106, 66 km, Serp - 66 km.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name of the river (as well as the Oka tributary of the same name) is usually derived from the Baltic * Tasna, comparing it with Prussian. Tusnan "quiet". Less popular is the version of origin from the other. * Dysna "right", bringing together the name with the hydronyma of the Desna.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>A calm, flat river, heavily regulated by dams, navigable in places from Tambov itself. The list of inland waterways in Russia includes a section from the mouth to the village of Tenshupino with a length of 47 km (2002). The left bank is treeless, heavily populated, but the villages are mostly 1–3 km from the river. Along the right bank almost everywhere there is a forest belt, but it comes to the water only in certain places, as it was cut down during the Great Patriotic War.</p><br>
<p>On the bank of the Tsna River there is the Holy Spring, known in Tambov and the nearest regions, located in the village of Treguliai. In the summer, many people come there to drink from the spring or bathe.</p><br>
<p>The price below Tambov is a meandering calm river, 40–80 m wide, flowing along a wide valley with a lot of creeks, old men, a stream where you can go fishing. On the banks of the reeds, thickets of bush. Water is markedly polluted.</p><br>
<p>From Tambov to Morshansk there are 5 dams with locks. The first - in the village of Tambov Forestry. The second one is near the village of Goreloe. Behind her, the river makes a long loop. Near the village of Troitskaya Dubrava is the third gateway. Behind the village of Kuleshovo is an oak forest. The forest comes to the shore and near the village of Perkino. In the city of Tambov in 1912 was built the first in the Tambov region a small hydroelectric station.</p><br>
<p>Below Perkino begins the Semikinskiy Canal, which significantly shortens the way for Tsna. In the floodplain of Tsna near Perkino, Semikino and below - the labyrinths of overgrown with old reeds.</p><br>
<p>Below the village of Semikino - Lake Lebyazhye and Orekhov Zaton - the largest floodplain lakes on the river Tsne. Below the Lake Orekhov Zaton on the high right bank is a natural species platform, from where the panorama of the village of Kulevatovo, the floodplain of the Tsna River, the mouth of the Chelnovoi River comes off.</p><br>
<p>The fourth dam is behind the village of Mamontovo, the fifth - in Morshansk.</p><br>
<p>Below Morshansk, Tsna becomes wider, the current is faster, beaches with small, sometimes silty, sand appear. The beaches are mainly meadow, only near Mutasievo on the right bank of the wedge is the forest to which the creek leads.</p><br>
<p>Before the village Serpovoe - the sixth dam. Ten kilometers from the dam after the mouth of the Serp tributary on the right high bank is a pine forest. At local residents this tract is called the Serpovsky Utesom.</p><br>
<p>Pine forest, reaching the river, there is also in front of the Rysly; Behind the village there is a floating bridge. The village of Chernitovo is a dam. Behind the dam on the banks again meadows. The river becomes wide (from 100 to 200 m).</p><br>
<p>Before the last dam (HPP), the river forms a reservoir with a length of about 6 km and a width of 0.5 km.</p><br>
<p>The dam is also in the area of the villages Aglomazovo and Tenshupino, where the river spills about 1 km. But after the reconstruction of the dam, the dam began to collapse year after year, and now the river has become much shallow.</p><br>
<p>Below the dam, the channel of the Tznu is narrowed to 40–50 m, the current accelerates, sandy rifts appear. The forest approaches the water in the form of separate islands. In Soviet times, the river was used for navigation, along the entire length of the shipping section from Tambov. For passenger navigation, air-cushion ships (SVPs) of the Zarnitsa type were used.</p><br>
<p>Widely used by tourists for rafting.</p><br>
<p>Цна в Тамбове.jpg|The river in Tambov (autumn)</p><br>
<p>Tsna in the center of Tambov.jpg||The river in Tambov (summer)</p><br>
<p>Цна.jpg|New river bed</p><br>
<p>Mount Nebo  is an elevated ridge in Jordan, approximately 817 m above sea level, mentioned in the Hebrew Bible as the place where Moses was granted a view of the Promised Land. The view from the summit provides a panorama of the Holy Land and, to the north, a more limited one of the valley of the River Jordan. The West Bank city of Jericho is usually visible from the summit, as is Jerusalem on a very clear day.</p><br>
<h2>Religious significance</h2><br>
<p>According to the final chapter of the Book of Deuteronomy, Moses ascended Mount Nebo to view the Land of Israel, which God had said he would not enter, and to die there; he was buried in an unknown valley location in Moab.</p><br>
<p>According to Christian tradition, Moses was buried on the mountain, although his place of burial is not specified. Some Islamic traditions also stated the same, although there is a grave of Moses located at Maqam El-Nabi Musa, 11 km south of Jericho and 20 km east of Jerusalem in the Judean wilderness. Scholars continue to dispute whether the mountain currently known as Nebo is the same as the mountain referred to in Deuteronomy.</p><br>
<p>According to 2 Maccabees, the prophet Jeremiah hid the tabernacle and the Ark of the Covenant in a cave there.</p><br>
<p>On March 20, 2000, Pope John Paul II visited the site during his pilgrimage to the Holy Land. During his visit he planted an olive tree beside the Byzantine chapel as a symbol of peace. Pope Benedict XVI visited the site in 2009, gave a speech, and looked out from the top of the mountain in the direction of Jerusalem.</p><br>
<p>A serpentine cross sculpture (the Brazen Serpent Monument) atop Mount Nebo was created by Italian artist Giovanni Fantoni. It is symbolic of the bronze serpent created by Moses in the wilderness and the cross upon which Jesus was crucified.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>On the highest point of the mountain, Syagha, the remains of a Byzantine church and monastery were discovered in 1933. The church was first constructed in the second half of the 4th century to commemorate the place of Moses&#39; death. The church design follows a typical basilica pattern. It was enlarged in the late fifth century A.D. and rebuilt in A.D. 597. The church is first mentioned in an account of a pilgrimage made by a lady Aetheria in A.D. 394. Six tombs have been found hollowed from the natural rock beneath the mosaic-covered floor of the church. In the modern chapel presbytery, built to protect the site and provide worship space, remnants of mosaic floors from different periods can be seen. The earliest of these is a panel with a braided cross presently placed on the east end of the south wall.</p><br>
<p>The Moses Memorial that houses the Byzantine mosaics has been closed for renovation from 2007 to 2016. It reopened on 15 October 2016.</p><br>
<p>The Battle of Two Sisters was an engagement of the Falklands War during the British advance towards the capital, Port Stanley; it took place from 11 to 12 June 1982.</p><br>
<h2>Prelude</h2><br>
<h3>Composition of forces</h3><br>
<p>The British force, commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel Andrew Whitehead, consisted of the Royal Marines of 45 Commando and 40 Commando anti-tank troop with support from six 105-mm guns of 29 Commando Regiment. The 2nd Battalion, Parachute Regiment (2 Para), was held in reserve. Naval gunfire support was provided by HMS Glamorgan&#39;s two 4.5-inch (114 mm) guns.</p><br>
<p>The Argentinian force originally occupying Mount Challenger, commanded by Major Ricardo Cordón, consisted of the 4th Infantry Regiment, with the bulk of the defenders drawn from C Company with the 1st Platoon (Sub-Lieutenant Miguel Mosquera) and 2nd Platoon (Sub-Lieutenant Jorge Pérez Grandi) on the northern peak of Two Sisters and the 3rd Platoon (Sub-Lieutenant Marcelo Llambias Pravaz) on the southern peak and the 1st Platoon A Company (Sub-Lieutenant Juan Nazer) and Support Platoon (Second Lieutenant Luis Carlos Martella) on the saddle between the two. Major Óscar Jaimet&#39;s B Company of the 6th Regiment (RI 6), acting as the local reserve, occupied the saddle between Two Sisters and Mount Longdon.</p><br>
<h2>Battle</h2><br>
<p>On 4 June the three companies of 45 CDO advanced on Bluff Cove Peak, on the lower slopes of Mount Kent, and were able to occupy the feature without opposition; they were met by patrols from the Special Air Service (SAS). Enemy opposition was initially desultory but on the night of 29 May a fierce firefight developed over capturing the two important hills, as they were intended to form part of an Argentine Special Forces line.</p><br>
<p>Captain Andrés Ferreros patrol (3rd Assault Section, 602 Commando Company) reached the base of Mount Kent but were then promptly pinned down by machinegun and mortar fire. First-Sergeant Raimundo Máximo Viltes was badly wounded when a bullet shattered his heel. Air Troop had two men wounded by rifle fire. Probing attacks around the D Squadron, SAS positions continued throughout the night and at 11:00 am on 30 May, about 12 Argentine Commandos (Captain Tomás Fernándezs 2nd Assault Section, 602 Commando Company) tried to get up the summit of Bluff Cove Peak, but were driven off by D Squadron who killed two of the party, First Lieutenant Rubén Eduardo Márquez and Sergeant Óscar Humberto Blas.</p><br>
<p>First Lieutenant Márquez and Sergeant Blas had shown great personal courage and leadership in the contact and were posthumously awarded the Argentine Medal of Valour in Combat. During this contact, the SAS suffered two casualties from grenades. The Argentine Commandos stumbled on a camp occupied by 15 SAS troopers. Throughout 30 May, Royal Air Force Harriers were active over Mount Kent. One of them, responding to a call for help from D Squadron, was shot down by small arms fire while attacking Mount Kents eastern lower slopes. Sub-Lieutenant Llambías-Pravazs platoon was later credited with the destruction of the Harrier XZ 963 flown by Squadron-Leader Jerry Pook.</p><br>
<p>A heavy mist hung over the Murrell River area, which assisted the 45 Commando Recce Troop to reach and sometimes penetrate the Argentine 3rd Platoon position under Sub-Lieutenant Marcelo Llambías-Pravaz. Marine Andrew Tubb of Recce Troop was on these patrols:</p><br>
<p>For his patrol action, Lieutenant Chris Fox received the Military Cross. In general terms, the Argentines were thoroughly entrenched, about 6,000 metres or less across no-man&#39;s-land. The Argentine positions were mined and heavily patrolled.</p><br>
<p>At about 2.10 am local time on 10 June a strong 45 Commando fighting patrol probed the 3rd Platoon position. In the ensuing fight Special Forces Sergeants Mario Antonio Cisneros and Ramón Gumercindo Acosta were killed; two more Argentine Special Forces lying in ambush for the Royal Marines were wounded. The British military historian Bruce Quarrie later wrote:</p><br>
<p>Major Aldo Rico, commander of the 602 Commando Company (involved in a military revolt some years after the war, followed by a career in politics), had a lucky escape in this engagement, when an enemy 66mm projectile exploded uncomfortably close. Captain Hugo Ranieri, who took part in this intense engagement claims that First Lieutenant Jorge Vizoso Posse, although wounded, shot three of the retreating Royal Marines. On that same night (9–10 June), according to the British, a friendly fire incident occurred when British units of 45 Commando Royal Marines on reconnaissance patrol were mistaken for Argentine units in the dark and the British mortar group opened up on them, only to be met with a withering hail of fire from 45 Commando in return. In the confusion, five British troops died, including the mortar troop sergeant, and two were wounded. The next day, Sub-Lieutenant Llambías-Pravaz&#39;s men recovered the rucksacks and weapons the Royal Marines had been forced to leave behind and these were presented to Argentine war correspondents in Port Stanley that filmed and photographed the British equipment.</p><br>
<p>The Mountain and Arctic Warfare Cadre also carried out patrolling against Two Sisters; Sergeant Joseph Wassell and Lieutenant Fraser Haddow played an important part in the capture of the mountain when they discovered with their binoculars from their observation post on Goat Ridge, the command-detonated barrels of mines the Argentinian Marine engineers had dug in and planned to use on the eastern half of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>Captain Ian Gardiners X-Ray Company spearheaded the attack on Two Sisters, accompanied by the units Commando-trained chaplain, the Revd Wynne Jones RN. Lieutenant James Kellys 1 Troop took the western third of the spineback on the southern peak of Two Sisters (Long Toenail), with no fighting taking place. However at 11:30 pm local time, Lieutenant David Stewarts 3 Troop ran up against a very determined defence on the spineback and were unable to get forward. Beaten from their attempt to dislodge the Argentine 3rd Platoon, Lieutenant Chris Caroes 2 Troop threw themselves at the platoon, but the attack was dispersed with the help of artillery fire. For three or four hours X Ray Company were pinned down on the slopes of the mountain. Naval gunfire rippled back and forth across the mountain, but the Argentine 3rd Platoon of Llambías-Pravaz held the Royal Marines off and were not dislodged until about 2.30 am local time. Colonel Andrew Whitehead realized that a single company could not hope to secure Two Sisters without massive casualties, and brought up the units two other companies.</p><br>
<p>At about 12:30 am local time Yankee and Zulu Companies attacked the northern peak (Summer Days) and after a very hard two-hour fight against two rifle platoons and despite heavy machine-gun and mortar fire, succeeded in capturing Summer Days. The Argentine mortar platoon commander, Lieutenant Martella, after having consumed all of his ammunition in an earlier attempt to stop the advance of 42 CDO on Mount Harriet was killed in this action. The British Marines also lost two platoon commanders wounded in the Argentine mortar bombardments with Marine Chris Cooke later recalling, "The three officers in my company pledged to have a drink together at the other end of the island, but only one made it, the other two left with shrapnel wounds." The Z Company platoon commander, Lieutenant Clive Dytor, won the Military Cross by rallying his 8 Troop and leading it forward at bayonet point to take Summer Days. He later recalled "I began listening to our rate of fire and I realised we were going to run out of ammunition. Then I remembered a line in a book about the Black Watch in the Second World War. They were pinned down and the adjutant stood up and shouted, Is this the Black Watch? Charge!’ What I didn’t remember, until I read it again later, was that he was actually cut in half at that point by a German machine gun. The next thing I knew I was up and running on my own, shouting, Zulu, Zulu, Zulu’, which was our company battle cry and also the battle cry of my father’s old regiment, South Wales Borderers."</p><br>
<p>Second Lieutenant Aldo Eugenio Franco and his RI 6 platoon, after having scrapped a planned counterattack in support of Major Cordon because the defenders no longer held the peaks, covered the Argentine withdrawal and prevented Yankee Company from attacking C Company as it withdrew from Two Sisters. Augusto Esteban La Madrid, a second lieutenant in the local reserve tasked with assisting Major Cordon, told British historian Martin Middlebrook that, during the final clashes, "Subteniente Franco&#39;s platoon was left as a rearguard, but he made it back to Tumbledown OK". Private Oscar Ismael Poltronieri who held up Yankee Company with accurate shooting with his rifle and a machine-gun, was awarded the Argentine Nation to the Heroic Valour in Combat Cross (CHVC), the highest Argentine decoration for bravery. Sub-Lieutenant Nazer had been wounded covering the withdrawal and the remnants of his platoon having been placed under the command of Corporal Virgilio Rafael Barrientos, took up positions on Sapper Hill. Sub-Lieutenants Mosquera and Pérez Grandi had been wounded in the British bombardment, and the remnants of their platoons were put under the command of Captain Carlos López Patterson, the Operations Officer of the 4th Regiment, who took up blocking positions in the ground between Mount Tumbledown and Wireless Ridge alongside the dismounted 10th Armoured Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron under Captain Rodrigo Alejandro Soloaga, engaging at times with heavy machinegun and mortar fire the forward 3 PARA elements on Mount Longdon throughout the daylight hours of 12 and 13 June.</p><br>
<h2>Aftermath</h2><br>
<p>The next morning Colonel Andrew Whitehead looked in wonderment at the strength of the positions the enemy had abandoned. "With fifty Royals," he said, "I could have died of old age holding this place." (Max Hastings, Going To The Wars, p. 363, Macmillan 2000) Although the British unit seemed at the time to have had an easy victory, those actually engaged with the enemy platoons would have been unlikely to agree. Thirty years later, Marine Keith Brown recalled the fighting for the northern peak and concluded "My impression of a night attack was that it was nothing like I expected it to be – in terms of a fairly ordered affair with people running and taking out machine gun nests. It was just hugely confusing. It was fairly arbitrary as to who seemed to be injured – lots of bangs and flashes and very loud noises. You had naval artillery and mortars and heavy and light small arms fire as well. It was terrifying, to be honest. I don’t know how my colleagues felt. We were pretty much pinned down and we came under direct fire from the Argentinians. Up to that point it was all to do with artillery and mortar rounds, but this was direct fire and they were using what seemed to us to be tracers, which was pretty daft. So, you could see where their fields of fire were and we were down low on the ground.</p><br>
<p>British-American historian Hugh Bicheno has been critical of the 6th Infantry Regiments B Company who, he claims, withdrew in a disorderly manner from front-line positions at the opening of the battle, although this seems to have little foundation. Brigadier-General Oscar Luis Jofre had certainly been planning to counterattack on Two Sisters but with the defenders no longer in possession of the twin peaks, he ordered the abandonment of the feature and later wrote All of a sudden, we suffer the first emotional impact. It was 04.45 when we received reports from Major Jaimet saying that the defenders on Two Sisters could no longer resist the enemy attack and would begin their withdrawal. Major Oscar Ramón Jaimet has gone on record, saying in the Argentinean newspaper La Gaceta that he had designated Sub-Lieutenant Franco to cover the Argentinean withdrawal and that Argentinean artillery fire was brought down in error amongst the company. Indeed, the company withdrew in good order, according to the Spanish-speaking warrant officer attached to 3 Commando Brigade Headquarters in the fighting. The Argentine Army Official Report on the war recommended Major Oscar Ramon Jaimet and CSM Jorge Edgardo Pitrella of the 6th Regiments B Company for an MVC (Argentine Nation to the Valour in Combat Medal) for the conduct of their fighting withdrawal and subsequent behaviour on Tumbledown (this was later granted to Major Jaimet, Pitrella was awarded the Argentine Army to the Effort and Abnegation Medal).</p><br>
<p>Sergeant-Major George Meachin of Yankee Company, later praised the fighting abilities and spirit of the Argentine defenders:</p><br>
<p>Hugh Bicheno described the moonscape of devastation:</p><br>
<p>With the telephone lines to the command post in shreds, Llambías Pravaz led his men to join M Company, 5th Marine Infantry Battalion on Sapper Hill. He had nearly been killed in the fighting when a rock impacted his helmet after a Milan missile exploded close behind him.</p><br>
<p>The X-Ray Company Marines were in awe of the Argentines in the depleted 3rd Platoon who had put up such determined resistance, and their company commander, Captain Gardiner in the book Above All, Courage (Above all, courage: the Falklands front line: first-hand accounts, Max Arthur, p. 289, Sidwick & Jackson, 1985) later said:</p><br>
<p>A lone rifleman on Long Toenail held out long after resistance had ended on the mountain. There was a humorous moment when the Revd. Wynne Jones was challenged by the Marines and called out that he was 45 Commando&#39;s padre and had forgotten the password.</p><br>
<p>Some 30 years later, Marine Nick Hunt of X-Ray Company got in contact with Sub-Lieutenant Marcelo Llambías-Pravaz, and in a televised reunion on the southern peak of the mountain, he returned the pictures he had found of the army officer and his platoon of conscripts the morning after the Royal Marines had stormed the position.</p><br>
<h3>Casualties</h3><br>
<p>Seven Royal Marine Commandos and a sapper from 59 Independent Commando Squadron, Royal Engineers were killed taking Two Sisters. Another 17, including platoon commanders (Lieutenants Fox, Dunning and Davies) were wounded. Some 20 Argentines entrusted with the defence of Two Sisters were killed in the first eleven days of June and the night of the battle, another 50 were wounded and 54 taken prisoner.</p><br>
<p>HMS Glamorgan, which was providing Naval gunfire support (NGS) stayed in her position to support the Royal Marine Commandos who were pinned down. Glamorgan stayed past the time she was meant to leave and was hit by a land based Exocet missile, thirteen crew were killed as a result of this attack.</p><br>
<h3>Awards received</h3><br>
<p>For bravery shown in the attack on Two Sisters, men from 45 Commando were awarded one DSO, three Military Crosses, one Distinguished Conduct Medal and four Military Medals. A commando from 29 Commando received a Military Medal as did a man from the M&AW Cadre.</p><br>
